The wildcat group consists of a few species, subspecies, or populations, which are phylogenetically very close to each other. Concerning its taxonomy, the wildcats in Africa and Asia were previously considered as subspecies of Felis silvestris (Yamaguchi et al. 2015). However, according to Kitchener et al. (2017), the populations from steppes and bushes of Africa and Asia are now classified as F. lybica, a separate species. Moreover, F. bieti, formerly considered as a sister taxon to F. silvestris or F. l. ornata (Driscoll et al. 2007) is recognized as a monotypic species from China due to its restricted distribution and distinct morphology (Kitchener et al. 2017). However, a recent genomic study (Yu et al. 2021) suggests that the distinction of F. bieti from other wildcat species (F. silvestris and F. ornata) is at subspecies level. Nevertheless, we did not assess the status of F. bieti in this assessment.

Driscoll et al. (2007) identified three distinct clades within this species, which are identified by Kitchener et al. (2017) as subspecies within F. lybica:

Felis lybica lybica Forster, 1780.
Distribution: Eastern, western and northern Africa, Arabian Peninsula, Corsica, Sardinia and Crete; integrates with F. l. ornata in western Iran, and probably in eastern Iraq and southern Turkey (Can et al. 2011, Ghoddousi et al. 2016, Kitchener et al. 2017, Mousavi et al. 2019).

Felis lybica cafra Desmarest, 1822.
Distribution: Southern Africa; the exact boundary with F. l. lybica is uncertain but may lie in Mozambique or Tanzania (Kitchener and Rees 2009).

Felis lybica ornata Gray, 1830.
Distribution: Southwestern and central Asia, Pakistan, India, Mongolia and China. Distinguishing characters: Light-coloured pelage with black spots. The contact zone between F. l. ornata and F. silvestris is perhaps in Turkey and the Caucasus (Ghoddousi et al. 2016, Mousavi et al. 2019, Wuest et al. 2021). Moreover, F. l. ornata distribution reaches and interogresses (Yu et al. 2021) that of F. bieti in the eastern part of the Hexi Corridor, Gansu, in China (S.-J. Luo pers. obs. 2019) and perhaps in Tajikistan (T. Rosen pers. obs. 2019).

The Afro-Asiatic Wildcat, one of the most common felid species, widely distributed in Africa and Asia with stable or possibly declining populations, and thus listed as Least Concern. The available information on trends in population and range of Afro-Asiatic wildcats is insufficient to merit Near Threatened status.

Future research on its status, population trends, distribution, and threats is required. Although in many areas the populations are considered to be stable or possibly declining, in some regions (Mallon and Budd 2011, Herbst et al. 2016), there is a range of threats to the survival of the species from ongoing land-use change, retaliatory killing as a consequence of poultry depredation, fur trade, roads accidents, trapping, attacks by domestic dogs and hybridization with domestic cats. Hybridization is considered an important threat across its entire range, potentially resulting in cryptic extirpations of some populations (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Driscoll et al. 2007, 2011; Yamaguchi et al. 2015). Further information on the levels and fitness consequences of hybridization for the species are required to inform a more robust assessment. It is worth noting that a recent study in South Africa (Le Roux et al. 2015) showed that rates of hybridization with domestic cats can be low, even in human-dominated landscapes.

Felis lybica has a very broad distribution, found in most of Africa, southwest and central Asia into India, China, and Mongolia (Yamaguchi et al. 2015). The distribution of the three subspecies of F. lybica (following Kitchener et al. 2017) is as follows:

In Africa, F. l. lybica occurs from northern to eastern parts of the continent, being only absent from closed tropical forest (Yamaguchi et al. 2015). Although distributed in true deserts, such as the Sahara, it occurs in these areas in association with hill and mountain country, such as the Ahaggar Mountains and Tassili N’Ajjer (Yamaguchi et al. 2015). In northern Africa, it has a discontinuous distribution, occurring in the Western Sahara (outside densely vegetated and rocky habitats) and Morocco (throughout the country but absent from densely human populated areas) through Algeria (throughout the country except in the Great Ergs), Tunisia and into Egypt (Sinai Region and Eastern Desert). The species also occurs on some Mediterranean islands (Sardinia, Corsica and Crete), however, the taxonomic status of the species in some of these islands require further investigations (Kitchener et al. 2017). F. l. lybica has an extensive distribution across the savannas of western Africa from Mauritania (coastal Atlantic and southern inland mountains), eastwards to the Horn of Africa, Mali (Gourma region), Niger (widely distributed with the exception of dense humid forests), Chad, Sudan and Ethiopia. In eastern Africa, it is widely distributed in Tanzania (mostly in the northern and central regions), Burundi (eastern parts) and Rwanda (eastern parts), Kenya (widespread but with few recent records) and Uganda (widespread but with few records from the western parts) (Treves et al. 2010, Kingdon and Hoffmann 2013, Foley et al. 2014, Amin et al. 2018). Its status should be assessed in South Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea and Djibouti. The distribution of F. l. lybica extends around the periphery of the Arabian Peninsula (Driscoll et al. 2007), in the United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Saudi Arabia (apart from deep desert sands of Rub al Khali), where it meets F. l. ornata in western Iran or possibly in eastern Iraq and southern Turkey (Harrison and Bates 1991, Heptner and Sludskii 1992, Can et al. 2011, Ghoddousi et al. 2016, Kitchener et al. 2017, Mousavi et al. 2019, Wüst et al. 2021). F. l. cafra replaces F. l. lybica in eastern and southern African countries (Driscoll et al. 2007, Stuart et al. 2013). Genetic information is not available at the moment for investigating the possible boundary between the two, but morphological and biogeographical evidence suggests the break may occur in the area around southern Tanzania and northern Mozambique (Kitchener and Rees 2009).

Felis l. cafra occurs widely in southern Africa and is fairly common in most protected areas (Yamaguchi et al. 2015, Herbst et al. 2016). F. l. cafra is distributed in Botswana (Kalahari), Namibia (Namib, Kalahari, Skeleton Coast and Koakoland), Lesotho, Mozambique, South Africa (all provinces especially around Kalahari) and possibly in Zimbabwe. It is not common in Zambia and its occurrence in Swaziland should be assessed (A. Monadjem pers. comm. 2019).

F. l. ornata occurs from Iraq and Iran into western India, and north to Kazakhstan, and into western China and southern Mongolia (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Driscoll et al. 2007, Yamaguchi et al. 2015). It is distributed in India (parts of Gujarat, Haryana, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and few sites in Andhra Pradesh, Karnaaka and Uttar Pradesh), Iran (across the country apart from Caspian forests of Mazandaran and Gilan), Kazakhstan (Mangistau, Kyzylorda, Aktobe, Almata, Atyrau, West, South and East Kazakhstan, Karagandy), Afghanistan (Bamyan plateau), China (Xinjiang, Gansu and Inner Mongolia), Mongolia (patchy distribution in Dzungarian Govi Desert, Shargyn Govi in Mongol Altai Mountain Range, Trans Altai Govi Desert, and Northern Govi), Pakistan (dry zones of Lower Sind as well as Lasbela and Mekran areas), Russia (Volga, Southern Russia and the Northern Caucasus), Tajikistan (Hissar, Hazratisho and Darvaz ranges, as well as Muzkol range in the eastern Pamirs), Turkmenistan (Sunt Hasar Dag and Kopet Dag ranges as well as Badkhyz Reserve) and Uzbekistan (Novoiskaya region) (Lydekkar 2005, Prater 2005, Yamaguchi et al. 2015, Ghoddousi et al. 2016, Rather et al. 2019, Barashkova and Karyakin 2020). The status of F. l. ornata in the Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia) and Turkey is unclear where it perhaps meets F. silvestris (Can et al. 2011, Ghoddousi et al. 2016, Wüst et al. 2021). There are possible recent records of F. l. ornata from Nepal (Ghimirey et al. submitted), which was not considered within the range of this species in the previous assessments of F. silvestris (with F. l. ornata formerly considered as a subspecies of it; Yamaguchi et al. 2015). However, there are no recent records (last one in 2005) of Afro-Asiatic wildcats in Kyrgyzstan. F. l. ornata is parapatric with F. bieti in China (S.-J. Luo pers. obs.), and possibly sympatric in Tajikistan (T. Rosen, pers. obs. 2019). However, a recent genomic study (Yu et al. 2021) questions that the distinction of F. bieti from F. ornata which requires further research. A northern range expansion of the Afro-Asiatic wildcat is reported in Russia. The species has been reported in Volga, South Urals regions and Pre-Caucasian plains, where it was not present before 1990s (Shevchenko 1997, Shlyakhtin et al. 2011, Oparin et al. 2010, Davygora 2005, 2020; A. Barashkova pers. comm. 2020).

There is no population assessment for Felis lybica at global, national or subpopulation levels. However, the population is considered to be stable in much of its range but possibly declining due to ongoing land-use change and the risk of hybridization with domestic cat in some regions, such as reported declines in South Africa, Lesotho (Herbst et al. 2016) and the Arabian Peninsula (Mallon and Budd 2011, A. Sliwa pers. comm. 2019). The population of Afro-Asiatic wildcat has been estimated at 0.1–1 individuals/km² in the Serengeti National Park (Waser 1980).

Afro-Asiatic wildcats are found in a wide variety of habitats, from deserts and scrub grassland to dry and mixed forest; absent only from rainforest and sandy desert (Yamaguchi et al. 2015). They can range up to 2,000–3,000 m in mountainous areas with sufficient vegetation but are most typically associated with scrub desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Mallon and Budd 2011). A study in the Serengeti National Park showed that the species is positively associated with Southern Acacia woodlands, alluvial plains and rivers, while the species avoided areas of high elevation, kopjes and high shrub cover (Durant et al. 2010). Where adequate cover is unavailable, they use holes created by species such as Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) or foxes or under the roots of trees (Mallon and Budd 2011, Herbst et al. 2016). They have also been recorded from agricultural landscapes where they use tall crops such as maize as shelter (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Their presence in rural landscapes is also confirmed by the presence of house rats (Rattus rattus) in their diets (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Rodents and lagomorphs are the staple of the Afro-Asiatic wildcat's diet across its range, with birds of secondary importance, although a variety of small prey is taken, and wildcats also scavenge (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, Herbst and Mills 2010). The stomach of an Afro-Asiatic wildcat from Oman, contained Coleoptera, Orthoptera, lizards, mammal fur, and a date stone (Harrison and Bates 1991). In Serengeti National Park, Afro-Asiatic wildcat population was associated with high rodent abundance which, in turn, was negatively associated with the Southern Oscillation Index (Sinclair et al. 2013, Byrom et al. 2014). Phelan and Sliwa (2006) found large home ranges (52.7 km² for a radio-collared female) in deserts of the United Arab Emirates, larger than home ranges reported elsewhere in more optimal habitat – around 3.5 km² for females in South Africa's Kalahari Gemsbok National Park (Herbst 2009). They are almost entirely nocturnal; however, they do show crepuscular activity depending on food availability and temperature (Herbst 2009). In Central Saharan Ahaggar and Tassili N'Ajier Mountains, camera trapping data showed that Afro-Asiatic wildcat are mainly nocturnal but sometimes crepuscular and diurnal movements have also been recorded (F. Belbachir pers. comm. 2019). Afro-Asiatic wildcats are solitary and communicate by actively scent marking their territories. In China, the wildcat is associated with deserts or dry grasslands in Xinjiang, Gansu and Inner Mongolia, usually at an altitude between 1,200 and 1,700 m (S.-J. Luo pers. obs. 2019).

Afro-Asiatic wildcats are considered to be threatened by domestic cats and hybridization is widespread across their range (Yamaguchi et al. 2015, Yu et al. 2021). However, a recent study (Le Roux et al. 2015), showed that wildcat populations in South Africa appear to be genetically pure, with low levels of hybridization, and protected areas play an important role in maintaining genetic purity by reducing the likelihood of contact with domestic cats. There is insufficient information on the level of hybridization with domestic cats in other parts of the range, and therefore, this threat should not be underestimated. Feral domestic cats also compete with wildcats for prey and space, and there is a high potential for disease transmission between domestic cats and wildcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Yamaguchi et al. 1996, Daniels et al. 1999, Macdonald et al. 2004).

Other threats include significant human-caused mortality, especially road kills and retaliatory killing as a consequence of depredation on livestock and poultry (Ghoddousi et al. 2016, F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2019). Moreover, wildcats are caught as bycatch in traps set for other species (Hashim and Mahgoub 2008, Stuart et al. 2013, Ghoddousi et al. 2016, A. Samna pers. comm. 2019, F. Belbachir pers. obs. 2019). Afro-Asiatic wildcats are also killed as pests in southern Africa, although this does not seem to have resulted in population declines (Stuart et al. 2013). Habitat loss is also known as one of the threats to Afro-Asiatic wildcats. For example, the expansion of cotton plantations and gas fields in China or development of so called ‘wasteland habitats’ in India (Sharma 1998) have reduced their suitable habitat. However, wildcats persist in cultivated landscapes with increased rodent population densities (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), although these are the areas where hybridization with domestic cats occurs and spreads. Moreover, free-ranging dogs kill wildcats and may increase their mortality rate, especially along protected area boundaries where they occur in significant numbers (TAWIRI 2009). Finally, the impacts of uncontrolled breeding of pure wildcats and selling of individuals as pets are unknown (Herbst et al. 2016).

Limited information on the use and trade of Afro-Asiatic wildcat exists. In southern Lesotho, interviewees indicated that they use Afro-Asiatic wildcat for clothes, hats, house ornaments, bags, blankets, necklaces, as well as for traditional medicine (CMBSL unpublished report). In Algeria, Ahaggar nomads, semi-nomads and residents reported that the species is occasionally used for meat consumption and/or for its medicinal properties (F. Belbachir pers. obs. 2019). Afro-Asiatic wildcats may be hunted or trapped for their fur by communities in South Africa (M. Herbst pers. obs. 2019), India (Sharma 1998, Menon 2003), Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Saudi Arabia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and China among other countries. Some commercial hunting operations also list Afro-Asiatic wildcats as trophy species (M. Herbst pers. obs. 2019). In the past, Afro-Asiatic wildcats were trapped in large numbers for their fur in Asia (Nowell and Jackson 1996), although at present there is no evidence of a significant international trade.

The species is included on CITES Appendix II since 1977. The Afro-Asiatic wildcat is fully protected across some of its African and Asian range countries (Nowell and Jackson 1996), although effective implementation of protection on the ground may be a different issue. Included on the Regional Red List Status of Carnivores in the Arabian Peninsula (Mallon and Budd 2011) as well as in Morocco (Cuzin 2003), where the species is listed as Near Threatened. The Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland classified it as Least Concern (Herbst et al. 2016). In India, it is scheduled I in the Wildlife Protection Act (1972), the highest level of protection for any given species. The Afro-Asiatic wildcat is legally protected in Afghanistan since 2009, which bans all hunting and trading of this species. It is a protected species according to the Red Books of China, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Mongolia and Russia. The wildcat is part of Tanzania’s Carnivore Action Plan (TAWIRI 2009).

There is an international studbook of Afro-Asiatic wildcat from the Arabian Peninsula, initiated in 1997 (Olbricht 1997) and continued since then (Sliwa 2006, 2013) to maintain a pure (unhybridized) population in captivity. There are about 60 registered individuals living in 12 institutions worldwide.

Despite the existence of a range of threats, there is very limited conservation attention on Afro-Asiatic wildcats. In South Africa and Tanzania feral or hybrid cats are removed/banned from protected areas. In Tajikistan, conservation efforts on snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and markhor (Capra falconeri), and in India on Great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) may indirectly benefit Afro-Asiatic wildcats as well. The main conservation needs include 1) assessment of hybridization threat in different parts of the range; 2) preventing hybridization by neutering and removing feral domestic cats, as well as, control of ownership and population levels of domestic cats; 3) human-wildcat conflict mitigation measures; 4) identification of roadkill hotspots and implementation of safe corridors; 4) control of illegal trade of wildcat fur and body parts; 5) control of habitat loss and degradation.