Recent molecular studies indicate that the former Afro-Eurasian ‘golden jackal’ represents two distinct lineages, the Golden Jackal (Canis aureus) from Eurasia and the African wolf (C. lupaster) from Africa (Krofel et al. 2022). However, the putative presence of Golden Jackal in the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt remains unclear (see Gaubert et al. 2012, Viranta et al. 2017).

European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe, the population and distribution range of this species are increasing rapidly. The estimated population size was between 97,000 and 117,000 Golden Jackals in 2016, of which approximately 84,000 are within the EU 27 member states. Golden Jackal dispersers are being recorded throughout the continent. The species faces no major threats. Therefore, the Golden Jackal is listed as Least Concern at the European and EU 27 levels. Golden Jackals are distributed in four subpopulations:

1. Pannonian-Balkan
Least Concern. The Pannonian-Balkan subpopulation is very large, estimated at 95,000-114,000 jackals and is increasing rapidly both in size and in distribution.

2. Adriatic
Least Concern. The Adriatic subpopulation is relatively large, estimated at 2,000-2,700 jackals, and is expanding to the north and towards the interior of the continent.

3. Peloponnese
Vulnerable (D1). The Peloponnese subpopulation is relatively small, estimated to be 100-120 jackal family groups (c.400-480 individuals) and is increasing. Therefore, it is classified as Vulnerable (VU), based on criterion D1.

4. Samos Island
Endangered (D). The Samos Island subpopulation is very small, probably isolated (demographic and genetic exchanges with the mainland are certainly rare), and estimated to be around 20 jackal family groups (c. 80 individuals) but is thought to be stable. Therefore, it is classified as Endangered (EN), based on criterion D.

In Europe, the Golden Jackal is present throughout the southeastern part of the continent (Ranc et al. 2022) and reproduces as far north as Austria (Hatlauf and Hackländer 2016), Czechia (Jirku et al. 2018), Germany (Tillmann et al. 2020), Italy (Lapini et al. 2016), Poland (Kowalczyk et al. 2020) and Slovakia (Guimarães et al. 2019). A subpopulation is currently developing in Estonia (Männil and Ranc 2022) and Latvia. Dispersers are being recorded throughout the continent, including in Finland (Kojola et al. in press), Norway (Sørensen and Lindsø 2021), Spain and the Netherlands. In some cases, long-distance dispersers have been recorded locally over several years and may have therefore settled as in Denmark, France and Switzerland. The species generally occurs between sea level and 800 m, and occasionally up to 1,800 m, in the Italian Alps (Lapini et al. 2016). The classification of countries' presence, origin and seasonality is based on the 2012-2016 IUCN SSC Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe (LCIE) assessment. For countries that have experienced important changes since 2016 (France, Finland, Germany, Norway, Spain), the classification is based on newly gathered records. The correspondence between the LCIE species online layers (SPOIS) classification and the IUCN Red List criteria is provided in Supplementary Information (see Table 2).

The Golden Jackal has a large Eurasian distribution extending from Southeast Asia to Central Europe. The species is present throughout the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, the Caucasus and southeastern Europe (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004, Trouwborst et al. 2015).

1. Pannonian-Balkan
The Pannonian-Balkan subpopulation extends throughout southeastern Europe and reaches Central Europe and the Baltic states (Ranc et al. 2022). It ranges from Greece to Ukraine in the east, to Austria, Czechia, Slovakia and Germany in the west, and to Estonia in the north. The subpopulation occurs in northeastern Greece (Central Macedonia region, and Eastern Macedonia Region and Thrace), North Macedonia (mainly along the Vardar Valley), most of Bulgaria (except for the main mountain ranges), Serbia (throughout most of the country), Romania (mainly in the Danube lowlands but expanding in Transylvania and in the eastern and western parts), in Bosnia and Herzegovina (mainly in the northern part), Croatia (mainly in Slavonia), throughout Slovenia, throughout Hungary, Austria (mostly eastern parts), Czechia (fragmented), Slovakia (south and east), Ukraine (primarily along the Black Sea coast) and Estonia (coastal areas).

2. Adriatic
The Adriatic subpopulation ranges from Greece to Italy, along the Adriatic coast (Ranc et al. 2022). It occurs in Greece (around Athens and the northwest), Albania, Montenegro (including the interior of the country), southern Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia (Dalmatia and Istria), western Slovenia and Italy (Venezia-Friuli-Giulia and Veneto provinces). The boundaries of this population are not well understood in southern Greece, near Athens (possible contacts with the Peloponnese population) as well as in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro and Slovenia (possible contacts with the Pannonian-Balkan population). The Golden Jackals in Italy are the result of an admixture between Adriatic and Pannonian-Balkan origins (Fabbri et al.2014), with a higher prevalence of individuals from the Adriatic subpopulation.

3. Peloponnese
The Peloponnese subpopulation is distributed throughout the Peloponnese peninsula (Greece), except for small areas in the Northwest and Northeast (Ranc et al. 2022).

4. Samos Island
The Samos subpopulation is restricted to Samos Island (Greece) (Ranc et al. 2022).

Distribution data are incomplete/not available for European Russia and some other parts of eastern Europe.

The Golden Jackal probably colonised Europe during the early Holocene (Spassov 1989, Sommer and Benecke 2005). Early remains were found in southern Greece and in Dalmatia in Croatia (Krofel et al. 2017). Golden Jackals remained limited to the small coastal areas of the Mediterranean and Black seas and their numbers were low until the 19th century, probably restricted by the presence of the Grey Wolf (Krofel et al. 2017). The first expansion into the Pannonian basin was detected in the 19th century. The expansion increased after World War II and has been very rapid since the 1970s, especially for the Pannonian-Balkan subpopulation. The estimated population size for Europe is between 97,000 and 117,000 Golden Jackals, of which approximately 84,000 are within the EU 27 (LCIE 2018). These are distributed in four subpopulations.

1. Pannonian-Balkan
According to an evaluation of the population in 2012-2016 (LCIE 2018), the subpopulation is estimated to be between 95,000 and 114,000 jackals and is increasing rapidly. The vast majority of the population is located in Bulgaria (46,000-61,000). Another five countries had high numbers of individuals: Serbia (c. 20,000), Hungary (c. 14,000), Romania (c. 10,000), Croatia (3,300-6,700) and Greece (c. 800). Numbers are also increasing in Bosnia and Herzegovina (300-500), Slovenia (150-350), Estonia (27 family groups in 2020; Männil and Ranc 2022) and North Macedonia (40-80). Few animals occur in Austria (minimum three family groups; Hatlauf et al. 2017). The population size of jackals in Slovakia is unknown but is growing (Urban et al. 2016, Guimarães et al. 2019). The first reproduction was recently detected in Czechia (Jirku et al. 2018), in Poland (Kowalczyk et al. 2020) and in Germany. The subpopulation is growing very rapidly as shown by temporal data. Relict populations in southeastern Bulgaria started to spread in the early 1960s. The distribution range increased 33-fold between 1962 and 1985, at accelerating rates (Kryštufek et al. 1997). In Serbia, the rapid expansion started at the beginning of the 1980s. Population estimates derived from hunting bag statistics suggest an exponential population growth (Ćirović et al. 2008, Heltai et al. 2013). Reproductive populations are now established throughout most of Serbia (Ćirović et al. 2008), where only vagrants are recorded. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the population has been reported to be increasing since 2000 with an average 35% annual growth in hunting records. The highest densities are reported for the northern part of the country (Trbojević et al. 2018). In Hungary, the species went extinct in the middle of the 20th century, naturally recolonised in the 1990s, and is now expanding very rapidly (Heltai et al. 2000, Heltai et al. 2004). Golden Jackals were first noticed in Estonia and Latvia in 2011 and were thought to be the result of natural expansion (Rutkowski et al. 2015, Männil and Ranc 2022).

2. Adriatic
Throughout the 20th century, the subpopulation was gradually increasing and expanding towards the northwest from its historic stronghold, in southern Dalmatia, Croatia (Kryštufek and Tvrtković 1990). In 2016, the population was estimated to be 2,000-2,700 jackals and continues to increase (LCIE 2018). The vast majority of the population is located on the coast of Croatia (c. 1,300-1,600), mainly in Dalmatia (LCIE 2018). Golden Jackals are also present in Montenegro (400-700), mainland Greece (c. 120), southern Bosnia and Herzegovina (c.100) and western Slovenia (50-150). A few family groups occur in Italy (c. 3-9).

3. Peloponnese
The subpopulation in the Peloponnese declined between the 1980s and the early 2000s (Giannatos 2004, Giannatos et al. 2005). Since then, the subpopulation is increasing and there were an estimated 100-120 jackal family groups i.e., 400-480 individuals in 2015 (LCIE 2018).

4. Samos Island
The subpopulation of Golden Jackal on Samos Island is small, estimated in 2015 to be around 20 jackal family groups (i.e., around 80 individuals) and is thought to be stable (Giannatos et al. 2005, LCIE 2018). Golden Jackals most likely colonised Samos Island from nearby Türkiye (1.7 km away). Their presence was already reported during the 18th and 19th centuries (Masseti 2012). Their low genetic variability suggests that the subpopulation may be isolated from the mainland (Rutkowski et al. 2015).

The species is very adaptable. As a generalist and opportunistic species, the Golden Jackal is capable of adapting to a wide range of habitats (Šalek et al. 2014). In Europe, family groups have been seen from sea level to 1,800 m (Lapini et al. 2016). The species is present in Mediterranean coastal vegetation, continental mixed forests, marshlands, agricultural landscapes, semi-urban and, sporadically, in urban habitats. Despite its generality, the species typically favours mosaic agricultural landscapes (Šalek et al. 2014, Ranc et al. 2022), as well as marshes and wetlands, areas at intermediate proximity from human settlements and where snow cover duration is short (Ranc et al. 2022). The species can thrive in human-dominated landscapes (Fenton et al. 2021). Population densities of Golden Jackal can vary considerably, most likely in response to available food resources, intraguild competition (especially with the Grey Wolf) and abiotic factors. In farmland landscapes of the Balkan Peninsula, local densities can range between 0.6 and 1.1 territorial group/10km² with maximum up to 4.8 territorial group/10 km² in shrub-herbaceous and heterogeneous agriculture landscapes (Šalek et al. 2014). The species is able to disperse rapidly through human-dominated landscapes (Lanszki et al. 2018), which explains the occurrence of vagrant individuals far from source populations (Rutkowski et al. 2015).

Across its European distribution, the Golden Jackal is considered an omnivorous and opportunistic forager able to exploit a wide range of available foods (Lanszki et al. 2022). Important diet items include small mammals (Lanszki et al. 2010), livestock carcasses and slaughter remains (Lanszki et al. 2009, 2010; Ćirović et al. 2016), game species, mostly consumed as viscera from hunting leftovers (Bošković et al. 2013), birds (Lanszki et al. 2009), as well as plants and fruits (Lanszki et al. 2009, 2010; Penezić and Ćirović 2015). European jackals mostly feed on domestic animals (slaughter remains; on average 40%), wild ungulates (20%) and rodents (19%) (Ćirović et al. 2016). Several other aspects of Golden Jackal ecology, especially sociobiology, remain poorly understood (Krofel et al. 2020).

Overall, the Golden Jackal appears to be a very successful species, which is increasingly expanding in Europe despite intensive persecution in several parts of the range. The Golden Jackal is often perceived negatively by the public despite the identified ecosystem services provided by the species (Ćirović et al. 2016), This negative opinion is mostly related to perceived conflicts with livestock owners and hunters (Mihelič and Krofel 2012), as well as from the perception of jackals as non-native animals due to recent colonisation of areas without historic presence (Trouwborst et al. 2015). Not surprisingly, the main threats to the species are related to legal culling, illegal killing and poisoning. In recent years some countries even aimed for complete eradication of the species (Trouwborst et al. 2015). Traffic accidents are also an important cause of mortality throughout the species range. Locally, changes in animal husbandry and waste management may reduce anthropogenic resource availability, on which jackals thrive, and this could reduce jackal survival and abundance (Kapota et al. 2016). Furthermore, agricultural intensification may reduce necessary cover in human-dominated landscapes (Giannatos 2004). Grey Wolves, especially when occurring in stable packs and ecologically effective densities, can reduce jackal abundance and range (Newsome et al. 2017), and local disappearances of territorial jackals have been recorded following wolf re-colonisation of some areas (Krofel et al. 2017). The potential impacts of diseases (rabies and sarcoptic mange, especially) and hybridisation with dogs remain to be studied, but may not be negligible (Galov et al. 2015). Although the aforementioned mortality factors tend to be ubiquitous throughout the species range, their relative importance may vary from subpopulation to subpopulation.

1. Pannonian-Balkan
The main threats to Golden Jackal in the Pannonian-Balkan subpopulation are, in order of importance, the low public acceptance related to real or perceived conflicts with livestock husbandry and hunters, traffic accidents, poisoning, intentional legal culling and illegal killing. Habitat modification and interference competition with Grey Wolves can locally be important as well as accidental illegal killing (e.g., non-targeted poisoning) and hybridisation with domestic dogs.

2. Adriatic
The main human threats to Golden Jackal in the Adriatic subpopulation are, in order of importance, the low public acceptance related to real or perceived conflicts with livestock husbandry and hunters, traffic accidents, intentional legal culling and illegal killing, as well as poisoning. Habitat modification and interference competition with Grey Wolves can locally be important as well as unintentional legal culling (e.g., erroneous killing during red fox hunting in Italy) and hybridisation with domestic dogs.

3. Peloponnese
The main human threats to Golden Jackal in the Peloponnese are, in order of importance, the decrease in anthropogenic resource availability (i.e., livestock carcasses, waste dumps), as well as the low public acceptance related to real or perceived conflicts with livestock husbandry. These are expected to intensify the changes in farming practices and traffic accidents, and to a minor extent, wildfires also impact the Golden Jackal subpopulation.

4. Samos Island
The main human threats to Golden Jackal in the Peloponnese are the decrease in anthropogenic resource availability (i.e., livestock carcasses, waste dumps) and traffic accidents. The low public acceptance related to real or perceived conflicts with livestock husbandry, and to a lesser extent, wildfires, also impact Golden Jackals on Samos Island.

The species is not known to be utilised.

The Golden Jackal is listed in Annex V of the Habitats Directive, 92/43 EC as a species of community interest. The species’ status varies at the national level (see Trouwborst et al. 2015 for a full review, including a discussion of some of the management confusion due to recent range expansion and inadequate legal interpretation). The species (as a wider species concept that included African Wolf Canis lupaster) was previously assessed (Giannatos and Kryštufek 2007) in 2006 as Near Threatened for the EU 27 members states.

1. Pannonian-Balkan
Golden Jackals are fully protected in North Macedonia. They are hunted in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine. The species is unprotected in Estonia, Greece and Czechia. Its status is variable in Austria from region to region.

2. Adriatic
The species is fully protected in Albania and Italy. Golden Jackals are hunted in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro and Slovenia. They are unprotected in Greece.

3. Peloponnese
The species is unprotected.

4. Samos Island
The species is unprotected.