This species has been revised by Fooden (2000), who regards Macaca mulatta as monotypic. The molecular differences identified among M. mulatta populations (Melnick et al. 1993; Morales and Melnick 1998; Tosi 2000; Tosi et al. 2000, 2002, 2003; Zhang and Shi 1993) are alone not consistent enough to conclusively define any subspecies.

Three subpopulation designated by molecular studies: Indian, Chinese, Indochinese (Indochinese being an introgression with M. fascicularis). Considerable hybridization with M. fascicularis in Laos, Thailand and Viet Nam and the both share an interspecific boundary of ca 2,000 km across the Indochinese peninsula in the south-east. Both M. fascicularis and M. mulatta share a range between 17°N and 14°N in Viet Nam, Laos and probably Thailand.

This species is listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large population, is tolerant of a broad range of habitats, and because it is unlikely to be declining at anything close to the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category.

From c.36°N (Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, China) S to c.15°N (India, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam), in Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Hainan Islands. The isolated NE China population was extirpated in 1987.

The species as a whole is found throughout most of southern Asia, in eastern Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, central and southern China (Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Tibet, and Yunnan, as well as the island  of  Hainan), northern and central India (in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Lao PDR, Myanmar, Nepal, northern Pakistan, northern Thailand, and Viet Nam. 

It occurs to the north of the Krishna River in central and eastern India and to the north of the lower Tapti River in western India, north intoAfghanistan, Nepal,Sikkim,  Bhutan, and northeast into China, where it extends to the  Yangtze and north of its  middle course to about 33°N,  110°E.

It is absent north of the lower Yangtze, but there is an additional, possibly introduced population in northern China north of the lower Hwang He (Yellow River), formerly occurring as far as Beijing (Groves 2001). 

There are introduced populations (mostly not mapped) in areas within this region as well as outside  it, for  instance south of the Krishna River in India; Kowloon and a  few small islands near Hong Kong; and to various other locations worldwide, including parts of Florida, USA and on Cayo Santiago island near Puerto Rico (M. Richardson pers. comm.).

Kumar et al. 2011 reported of range extension by the Macaca mulatta southward, by 3500km² displacing the Bonnet macaques, sometimes coexisting as mixed groups with the latter and some other time, just existing as separate species groups in sympatry.

This species is widely distributed in south, southeast and east Asia. Populations are sizable, but increasingly commensal with humans, resulting in some fragmentation of the distribution (Molur et al. 2003). It can be abundant in many places, including in cities. Hunting of this species in Lao PDR and Viet Nam has severely depressed populations in these countries although it still remains widespread. In Namdapha National Park, India, this species was found to have a group density of 0.44 groups/km², with an average group size of 12.3 individuals (Chetry et al. 2003).

The average group size in other parts of India is much higher (Siddiqui and Southwick 2004). Srivastava and Mohnot (2001) consider this species to be rare in the forests of north­eastern India.

J.-Q, Lu (2007) reported c.2100 macaques in Taihangshan mountains, through direct surveys and review of previous reports of the other half of the park not surveyed.

Population estimate of the macaques in Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh yielded a total of 4051 individuals from various habitats. Average group size of 48 ranging between 15 and 155 (Imam & Ahmed 2013).

In Shimla, density of Macaca mulatta was 37.02 individuals/km². Mean group size of 16.65 (6-38), total individuals of 817 an group density of 2.22 groups/km² (Chauhan and Pirta 2010).

This species is diurnal and omnivorous, and alternatively arboreal and terrestrial. It resides in a range of habitats, including temperate coniferous, moist and dry deciduous, bamboo, and mixed forests, mangroves, scrub, rainforest, and around human habitations and developments, including cultivated areas, temples, and roadsides (Choudhury 2001; Srivastava and Mohnot 2001). In Pakistan this monkey remains in mountainous  regions with forest cover; it is typically associated with Himalayan moist temperate  forest (Roberts 1997). It is found at elevations up to 4,000 m (Molur et al. 2003).  Due to hunting in Lao PDR and Viet Nam the species does not occur in commensal situations there, and is restricted to forest areas where it is generally  associated with riverine environments over a range of altitudes (Timmins pers. comm.).  In  western and northern parts of its range it seems to occur in a wider array of environments. It is highly adaptable to man­ made habitat. Its generation time is 12 years (Molur et al. 2003).

Most records are from under 2000m but they are also known to occur in 3200 m in Nepal and c.4000 m in Quinghai, China. They are commensally found in human habitation both in urban and rural landscapes.

Primarily vegetarian, their diet is highly diverse and varies geographically. As in Sundarbans, they are known to fishing on mudflats. Other animal food includes crabs, shellfish, bird eggs, honeycombs, crayfish, crabs, and spiders. Plant materials include fruits, seeds, flowers, leaves, shoots, twigs, roots, twigs, shoots, buds, stems, gums and pith.

Seasonal breeding with the mating activities peaking in autumn, winter and births in spring and summer. Gestation of 133-200 days at an average of 166 days. Mean annual birth rate in wild population 42.9-90.8%. In a study conducted on breeding energetic, high ranking or breeding males were found to be more spent and restless during copulation or breeding season and were seen to feed more and refurbish energy during birthing.(Higham et al, 2010). Interbirth intervals as studied Cayo Santiago macaques, of a data set of 50 years, ranged 300-2591 days and a median life span of 15 years. Average inter-interval for the age category 4 and 18 ranged 392 and 463 days (mean-425.6 days) but average increased to 541 days at 19 years (Hoffman et al. 2010)

Diurnal. Forest dwelling population are more arboreal than their urban dwelling conspecifics. They are though known to spend 72% of their active time on the ground and just 28% on the trees. Home range of c.65ha as seen in 323 non-forest groups and of 198ha in 129 forest groups.

This species is generally unthreatened, though its original habitat is increasingly being lost to development. While M. mulatta exists easily around humans, the increasing level of cohabitation has been associated with waning levels of human tolerance for the animals (Molur et al. 2003). Confiscation for laboratory testing is a mostly localized threat, but it is considerable in certain areas (A. Kumar pers. comm.). Capture and release of laboratory and “problem monkeys”  from rural and urban  areas into natural forests is a major  threat to wild macaques.

In Lao PDR and Viet Nam the major threat to the species is hunting, although loss of forest in river valleys has also likely impacted the species (R. Timmins pers. comm.).  In Indochina hunting pressure is high, and thus tolerance to human disturbance is low. Introduction, through release of confiscated M. fasicularis, is at least a localized threat in parts of the species' Viet Namese range (R. Timmins pers. comm.).  Tolerance of the species varies locally, from heavily hunted and persecuted, to worshipped and fed.

Main threat at present include habitat loss and habitat deterioration, human-primate conflict. Hunting for subsistence in eastern parts of India and trapping for pet trade in Afghanistan should also be considered as threats. Himachal Pradesh government in Indian undertook state wide sterilization program for these macaques but as to how successful they were from a conservation perspective is highly questionable.

Opinion surveys conducted in Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh report that 61% of the people coexisting with macaques find macaques to be damaging of crops and property, while 86 % want them relocated. (Imam and Ahmad 2013).

Chauhan and Pirta (2010) argue that despite the relocation, macaques in Shimla continue to flourish unabated. They also point to the many threats in the region from man made hazards to garbage that seem to form a big part of the city dwelling macaques.

Chauhan & Pirta (2010b) report of a macaque threatening behavior wherein the macaques in urban areas steal or grab valuable things off passers by and would not let go until threatened or given food in exchange. Such behaviors create a sense of panic and antagonism against these macaques in the minds of people, further complication conservation action.

 

Hunted for food and live trapped for research purposes.

This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is also listed in Schedule III in the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974 and in Schedule I, Part I in the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (amended up to 2002), on Category II of the Chinese Wildlife Protection Act (1989), and is protected with all other primates in the Nepalese National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973. Protection status varies widely throughout the species range.

Rhesus macaques reside in a large number of protected areas throughout their range.