Taxonomy currently used by the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group (see Kitchener et al. 2017):

Panthera leo leo—Central Africa, West Africa and Asia
Panthera leo melanochaita—Southern and East Africa

Lions were previously described as two subspecies: the African Lion (Panthera leo leo) and the Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica). However, recent studies (Bertola et al. 2015, 2016, 2022) indicate that lions in Western and Central Africa are more closely related to lions found in India than to those found in Southern and East Africa. This is likely the result of lions being reduced to local refugia during the more recent part of the Pleistocene climatic cycles (Bertola et al. 2011, 2016). Divergence times estimated from genetic data match large-scale changes in habitat, including expansion and contraction of forested areas, possibly reducing connectivity and isolating lion populations (Bertola et al. 2016). This temporary isolation may have led to divergence of populations, which can still be observed today. Historical connectivity between lion populations in West or Central Africa and populations in India explain the close evolutionary relationships between these populations, even though a series of bottlenecks have caused the Indian population to differentiate quickly as a result of increased genetic drift (Bertola et al. 2015, 2016, 2021, 2022). According to recent genetic studies, Ethiopia is identified as a suture zone for lion populations, indicating significant genetic overlap between P. l. leo and P. l. melanochaita (Bertola et al. 2021). This suture zone putatively includes Dinder National Park in Sudan, Boma and Badingilo National Parks and Kidepo Game Reserve in South Sudan, and all lion populations across Ethiopia and Kidepo Valley National Park in Uganda (Bertola et al. 2021; Bertola et al. in prep.). This zone is a natural occurrence and was not created through species or area management, and there is no intention to intervene to reduce or prevent hybridization from occurring between the two subspecies. See Table 1 in the Supplementary Information for supporting information regarding population subspecies classification.

The Lion is assessed as Vulnerable under criterion A2c based on an estimated 34% decline in the species' range over three generations (approximately 21 years) and therefore a similar population reduction is suspected.

Despite the Lion being well-studied, uncertainty remains a challenge in assessing this species (refer to the section on this topic under Population below for more detail). In recent years, considerable conservation effort has led to stable lion populations in some areas and even recovery in others (e.g., reintroductions into the Zambezi Delta in Mozambique, Akagera in Rwanda). However, over the last 21 years, declines in certain populations have also occurred (e.g., Limpopo National Park, Etosha National Park, and Niassa Special Reserve) with some becoming locally extinct (e.g., Quirimbus National Park in Mozambique, Yankari Game Reserve in Nigeria (P. Funston pers. comm. 2023) and Toro-Semuliki Wildlife Reserve in Uganda). The present assessment is guided by the best available data and methods. Uncertainty is a common problem in the assessment of long-lived species where trends are assessed over a time span that either includes historical periods where some survey techniques were not yet available, or future periods that are inherently unpredictable.

A population of between 22,000 and 25,000 adult and subadult lions in Africa (African Lion Database, unpub. data 2025) and ~670 adult and subadult lions in India (Gujarat Forest Department 2020) was estimated in this assessment. Extant lion range in 2025 is estimated to be 1,566,675 km², only 6% of its historical range. This is an estimated 34% range decline since 2004 (three lion generations), where range was estimated to be 2,370,996 km² (Table 1 in the Supplementary Information). This decline, which is likely to continue, reflects a combination of recent known and inferred decline, as well as improved knowledge.

Riggio et al. (2013) showed that declines in savanna habitat translate into declines in lion numbers. Lindsey et al. (2017) showed that lion densities vary substantially across their range, and that lions occur at levels below 50% of carrying capacity in two thirds of the sites they analysed. However, these sites were spread all over the African continent, and the range decline is also across the continent, so we have no reason to reject lion range decline as a direct proxy for lion population decline. This supporting evidence suggests that range declines equate to lion population declines, and that range is an appropriate measure for our assessment. Therefore, this suspected decline of 34% in population is justified.

Lions are extant in 18 African Range States and possibly extant in four (Table 2 Supplementary Information). The most important driver of lion decline is habitat loss (Bauer et al. 2020). Prey base depletion is also a significant driver and is partly linked to habitat loss, but more importantly to poaching and the bushmeat trade (Becker et al. 2013). Human–lion conflict, which results in the indiscriminate killing of lions in defence of human life and livestock, is another major threat to the species (Sibanda et al. 2021). The trade in bones and other body parts for traditional medicine, both within Africa and in Asia (Williams et al. 2017, Mole and Newton 2020, Coals et al. 2022) is an emerging threat. Furthermore, although trophy hunting can contribute positively to lion conservation, improvements in management practices of this practice have been recommended (Edwards et al. 2014, Dickman et al. 2019), as when poorly regulated, it also contributes to population declines (Packer et al. 2009, Croes et al. 2011, Rosenblatt et al. 2014, Loveridge et al. 2023). Poorly regulated trophy hunting has been previously highlighted as a threat to lions, however, attempts have been made to mitigate through the implementation of science-based management practices. Populations that are trophy hunted should be effectively monitored to ensure that there are no negative population impacts. The impact of violent extremism in several parts of lion ranges in Africa (Lhoest et al. 2022) is likely to further drive the declining nature of lions in these regions. The increasing number of lions poached for their body parts in Mozambique (African Lion Database, unpub. data 2023; Mole and Newton 2020) is of concern, but this presently appears to be confined to this region (Coals et al. 2020), however, illegal trade is reported in at least six African countries (see CITES CoP 17 Prop. 4).

Given the evidence of ongoing and increasing threats to lions across much of their fragmented range, we recommend that the Lion is a species under observation and its threat status is closely monitored, with a reassessment after a minimum three-year period or as soon as new information emerges.

This decline in both population and range (as a proxy of area of occupancy), which is likely to continue, reflects a combination of recent known and inferred decline, as well as improved knowledge. This meets the requirements for listing as Vulnerable A2c.

Lions have experienced the most significant contraction in their habitat range among the large carnivores, with about 85% of lion range lost since 1500 CE (Table 1 in Supplementary Information). Outside Sub-Saharan Africa, the lion formerly ranged from North Africa through Southwest Asia (where it disappeared from most countries within the last 150 years), west into Europe (where it became extinct almost 2,000 years ago), and east into India (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Today, the only remainder of this once widespread northern population is a single isolated subpopulation in the 1,400 km² Gir Forest National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary and the surrounding landscape in India. Lions are extinct in North Africa, having perhaps survived in the High Atlas Mountains up to the 1940s (Nowell and Jackson 1996, West and Packer 2013).

Lion distribution was assessed using the lion distribution map created and maintained by the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group’s African Lion Database (ALD). The ALD is used to provide a continually updated assessment of the abundance and distribution of lions in Africa. Based on the data in the ALD, regional maps were generated, and adjustments made based on feedback from country experts. Where new data were lacking, the 2015 Red List Assessment and the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group’s Guidelines for the Conservation of Lions in Africa (IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group 2018) were used as both have been through a peer-review process. Repeated observation data from areas previously considered as out-of-range were obtained. These areas do not necessarily indicate range expansion since the last assessment, but rather more accurate data. Such areas include: Luando area in Angola (J. Anderson pers. comm. 2019), the Mpem and Djem area in Cameroon (Bauer et al. 2019), the northern boundary of Central Kalahari Game Reserve in Botswana (A. Loveridge pers. comm. 2022), additional wildlife management areas in the Okavango (A. Stein pers. comm. 2022; A. Albertson pers. comm. 2019), Southern National Park in South Sudan (M. Moeller pers. comm. 2022), Zeraf area in South Sudan (R. Gony pers. comm. 2023), Erindi Private Game Reserve in Namibia; (Erindi PGR unpublished data 2020), various hunting concessions in Mozambique (e.g., in Tete Province; R. Lovemore pers. comm. 2022; Rio Save Safaris Lda unpublished data 2022) and Chad (African Parks, unpub. data. 2022) and several game reserves in South Africa (SANBI, unpub. data. 2022). However, some areas do reflect an increase in range due to the successful reintroductions of lions into fenced areas (e.g., fenced reserves in South Africa, Liwonde and Majete in Malawi, Akagera in Rwanda).

Furthermore, some of the mapped subpopulations are in areas where armed conflict may have had an impact on lion persistence (e.g., Central African Republic and South Sudan). Until proof to the contrary and based on the lack of recent data to confirm lion presence, we therefore classified such areas as “Possibly Extinct” but maintained Protected Areas as lion range (including many large hunting concessions, such as in the Central African Republic). Some of the areas currently mapped as “Possibly Extinct” could contain relict lion subpopulations and should be prioritized for field surveys (e.g., large areas in South Sudan, Central African Republic, and Somalia) aimed at establishing lion status.

Change in range
We estimated the change in lion distribution over three generations (21 years: 2004–2025). To estimate lion distribution in 2004, we primarily used the distribution range outlined in the Conservation Strategy for the Lion in West and Central Africa (IUCN, 2006a) and the Conservation Strategy for the Lion in East and southern Africa (IUCN, 2006b). Although data reflects lion range in 2006, distribution in 2004 is unlikely to have differed substantially. Furthermore, due to an improved understanding of the distribution of the species, as well as improvements in the availability of remote sensing technology, we were able to make several amendments to the 2006 range map, and in doing so increase its accuracy. Firstly, Badingilo National Park (South Sudan), Dinder-Alatish-Bejimiz Complex (Ethiopia and Sudan), Babile Elephant Sanctuary (Ethiopia), Chebera Churchura National Park (Ethiopia), Maze National Park (Ethiopia) were incorrectly represented in the 2006 range map; this has therefore been corrected. In addition, we used remote sensing data from 2006 (GlobCover 2005-2006, V2.2; https://due.esrin.esa.int/page_globcover.php) to excise areas that were classified as lion range in 2006, but which were already >50% converted to agriculture at the time. The objective was to avoid risking overestimating range decline between 2004 and 2025, by classifying as declines what were likely artefacts of better mapping being carried out during the development of the 2025 distribution map. While there are still likely to be some inaccuracies in the resulting range map, and we were not able to look at finer-scale considerations of presence (e.g. it is possible that lions had already been extirpated from some areas of unconverted natural habitat), we nevertheless believe that - through our approach - we were able to develop a more accurate map for the 2006 lion distribution than previously available, which we could then use for our range change calculations. As a result, we argue that these range change calculations are more accurate than if we had used the original range map, without these ameliorations. However, it must be noted that the resulting 2006 range map still carries a high level of uncertainty, and we suggest further work be done in an attempt to further improve this.

For the 2025 range, the latest distribution map (2025) was utilized from the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group’s African Lion Database (African Lion Database, Unpublished Data, 2025). To account for recent loss of habitat in areas where data are lacking, continental lion range was overlaid with a cropland layer obtained from the ESA WorldCover V2 2021 product (https://esa-worldcover.org/en). Areas of at least 100 km² of continuous range that consisted of over 50% cropland were reclassified from “Extant” to “Possibly Extinct”, as it is unlikely that such areas still sustain resident Lion populations.

In Table 1 in the Supplementary Information, we present the range figures from Historic post-1500, 2004, 2015, 2023, and 2025. We estimate extant lion range in 2025 to be 1,566,675 km², or 6.13% of historical range. This is a 34% decline in three lion generations. This range reduction reflects a combination of recent known and inferred decline, as well as improved knowledge.

ASIA
The only remaining population of lions in India occur in the Greater Gir Landscape, which includes the Gir Wildlife Sanctuary, Gir National Park, and the surrounding landscape (Meena et al. 2014).

AFRICA
West Africa
In West Africa, Lion populations have primarily been limited to small numbers in Niokolo-Koba (Senegal), (Panthera & DPN, unpublished data), and in Yankari Game Reserve and Kainji Lake National Park (Nigeria) (Gueye et al. 2022; Tende et al. 2010, 2014). However, populations in Yankari and Kainji Lake are now possibly extinct, as lions have not been observed in almost a decade (P. Henschel pers. comm. 2025; African Lion Database, Unpublished data, 2025). The largest known population of lions in West Africa resides in the W-Arly-Pendjari Complex, which spans across Benin, Burkina Faso, and Niger (African Parks 2018). However, due to violent extremist groups that have occupied the Burkina Faso and Niger sides of the complex, it is likely that local wildlife populations have significantly declined (Lhoest et al. 2022). This situation has also affected park management and conservation work. As lions have not been observed in the Burkina Faso and Niger components in over five years, we conservatively consider them to be possibly extant in these areas.

Central Africa
In Central Africa, lions are found within the Bénoué Complex and Waza National Park in Cameroon. Dispersed individuals have been found south of Bénoué, around Mpem and Djem National Park, and in Sena Oura National Park in Chad. Zakouma National Park and the surrounding areas have the largest population of lions in Chad. There is more uncertainty around the exact presence of lions in both the Central African Republic and South Sudan. In the Central African Republic, they are found in some of the national parks, including Bamingui-Bangoran National Park, Andre Felix National Park, Yata-Ngaya Faunal Reserve, and the Chinko Conservation Area (CCA). The latter is believed to have the largest population, estimated at ~150 lions (T. Aebischer pers. comm. 2023). Based on conservation projects in the area, it can be assumed that the CCA is the only place in eastern Central African Republic where the Northern lion population is increasing, in all other areas it is likely stable or more likely decreasing, locally even dramatically (T. Aebischer pers. comm. 2023). In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, there are two populations, one in Garamba National Park and the surrounding hunting complex (and potentially extending into Lantoto in South Sudan) and Virunga National Park.

East Africa
In East Africa, lions are found in several areas in Ethiopia—although there is considerable uncertainty regarding their extent outside of protected areas. Populations in Ethiopia include Gambella National Park, Gura Ferda Forest Priority Area and Omo-Tama-Mago complex (the Tama Community Conservation Area, Omo National Park, and Mago National Park are interconnected, creating a continuous wildlife habitat that connects the lion populations in these areas to those in Boma National Park in South Sudan), Nechisar National Park, Chebera Churchura National Park, Maze National Park, Kefa Biosphere Reserved Area, Bale Mountains National Park, Awash National Park and the surrounding Afar’s Landscape. Borana and Gerraile National Park are also possibly extant.  In South Sudan there are confirmed populations throughout the country, including in Southern National Park, Badingilo National Park, Zaref Game Reserve, and Boma National Park. Lion presence has also been confirmed between Badingilo and Boma National Parks (M. Claase pers. comm. 2025). In Sudan, lions have only been confirmed in Dinder National Park which forms a transboundary area with Alatash and Bejimiz National Parks in Ethiopia. Populations of lions occur in Uganda (including Queen Elizabeth National Park, Murchison National Park and Kidepo Valley). In Rwanda, one small, reintroduced population (<50 individuals) is found in Akagera National Park. Lions have significantly larger distributions in both Kenya and Tanzania, where they are found in most National Parks, protected areas, and hunting concessions. However, lion range in Tanzania has been reduced due to the increasing conversion of habitat into agricultural land. Field surveys for many areas of Tanzania are also still lacking. In Somalia there have been some reports of lion presence, but there is no tangible evidence to support this, thus this range is assigned to the uncertain category.

Southern Africa
In Southern Africa, lions occur in multiple fenced reserves in Malawi, where they have been reintroduced (each population <50 lions). In Zambia, lions are found in Kafue, Liuwa Plains National Park, Sioma Ngwezi National Park and within the South Luangwa Valley. Lions are believed to have been recently extirpated from Northern Zambia. Within Namibia, lions are found in Etosha National Park, up the Skeleton Coast, and the Kunene and Caprivi regions. South Africa’s largest lion populations are in the Transfrontier parks of Kruger and Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, as well as a large managed metapopulation network of fenced reserves. In Botswana, they are found in the Central Kalahari and the Okavango-Delta region. The largest population in Zimbabwe occurs in the Hwange ecosystem. In addition, lions also occur in Gonarezhou National Park and the surrounding areas (including Savé Valley Conservancy and in Bubye Valley Conservancy, a large fenced protected area). Lions also occur in northern Zimbabwe in the Zambezi Valley protected area complex bordering Zambia and protected areas south of Lake Kariba. In Mozambique, lions have been extirpated from much of their range (including Quirimbus National Park and the Tete Province). The largest population (>800 lions) within the country occurs in Niassa Reserve. In addition, lions occur in the Zambezi Delta, extending north towards Coutada 9, Limpopo National Park, Lebombo Conservancy, Zinave National Park, and a restricted area south of the Tete Province.

The global population of lions is highly fragmented (Loveridge et al. 2022). This is especially true in West Africa were the severaln populations (Niokola-Koba, WAP, Waza National Park, Benoué Complex=) are all considered to be isolated from one another. In Central and East Africa, various populations are also fragmented.

Abundance
For this assessment, we do not aim to provide a new estimate of total lion numbers. Determining a population number for lions is incredibly challenging as most populations have yet to be surveyed and population numbers that may exist are based on guesses or extrapolations. In addition, some surveys are outdated. For this assessment, to determine a global population number, we used the latest population estimates published in the “Guidelines for the Conservation of Lions in Africa” (GCLA, Bauer et al. 2018), and where possible, updated those figures from the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group’s African Lion Database (ALD) where more recent surveys have been completed. Caution must be exercised when using these figures and inferring trends based on these data presented in the GCLA due to various data limitations. Considering the difficulty in interpreting lion numbers and the availability of an alternative, we decided not to base this assessment on total population numbers alone. Though our knowledge of the lion distribution has improved with time, it is still limited at the national, regional, and range-wide scales because reliable data on lion population trends are missing from large portions of their range, particularly in West and Central Africa.

The estimated lion population size in Africa is between 22,000 and 25,000 subadult and adults (Bauer et al. 2018, African Lion Database unpublished data 2025; Supplementary Information Table 4) and ~670 subadult and adult lions in India (Gujarat Forest Department 2020). Between 2006 and 2018, the lion population in Africa was estimated to have declined by 25% over 12 years from 33,292 to 25,105 (Bauer et al. 2018). In this assessment we estimate a further decline from ~25,105 in 2018 to between 22,000 and 25,000 adult and subadult lions. Although in the past decade, lion populations seem to be increasing in many of their Southern African ranges, there are indications of a general population decline across its total range with the biggest assumed declines in West and Central Africa.
 
Several subpopulations have been stable, among them the only remaining subpopulation in Asia (surviving in the Gir Forest area of Gujarat, India) and several subpopulations in Southern Africa—especially those in fenced, well-protected reserves. Subpopulations appear to be stable where management is sufficiently funded with fencing being one of several effective conservation management techniques (Packer et al. 2013, Lindsey et al. 2018, di Minin et al. 2021). However, many lion subpopulations occur in areas where management budgets are insufficient (Lindsey et al. 2018, Robson et al. 2022), leading to local declines and even extinction (e.g., West Africa; Henschel et al. 2014). Little is known about lion subpopulations in Angola, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nigeria, Somalia, and South Sudan, but these are assumed to be declining based on the limited data available from these areas and the conservation challenges in these areas (e.g., political instability). In the last two decades, several populations are now considered to have gone extinct or possibly extinct, including Chirisa and Chete Safari Areas (Zimbabwe), Comoé National Park (Côte d’Ivoire), Gashaka-Gumti National Park (Nigeria), Kainji Lake National Park (Nigeria), Lake Mburu National Park (Uganda), Nkhotakota Wildlife Reserve (Malawi), Nsumbu National Park (Zambia), Quirimbas National Park (Mozambique), Swaga Swaga Game Reserve (Tanzania), Toro-Semuliki Wildlife Reserve (Uganda), and Yankari Game Reserve (Nigeria).

While lions qualify as Vulnerable, it is of great concern that parts of the African population is inferred to have declined at a rate that meets the category for Endangered, particularly in West Africa.

ASIA
The only remaining population of lions in India occurs in the Greater Gir Landscape, which includes the Gir Wildlife Sanctuary, Gir National Park, and the surrounding landscape (Meena et al. 2014). Here, there are an estimated 537 adult and subadult lions (Gujarat Forest Department 2020). This is a 40% increase in the number of individuals since the last survey in 2015 (Gujarat Forest Department 2020).

AFRICA
West Africa
In West Africa the W-Arly-Pendjari (WAP) Complex (Benin, Burkina Faso and Niger) previously held the largest population of lions in West and Central Africa, but due to intense anthropogenic pressures (Horion et al. 2025, Lhoest et al. 2022, Nicholson 2024, Panthera 2024) this population is considered to have declined significantly. Lions are considered only “possibly extant” in the Burkina Faso and Niger components of the WAP as the last observations of lions in these parts were more than five years ago. In addition, occupation by violent extremist groups, who control 62% of the complex (Panthera 2024), has likely driven the population to local extinction. Population surveys have only been able to be conducted in the Benin component of the WAP, where there is no occupation by violent groups. Recent surveys estimated ~187 adult and subadult lions in this portion of the complex (African Parks 2021). Recent surveys in Senegal’s Niokolo-Koba National Park, estimate 30-40 adult and subadult lions, and this population has been observed to be increasing in recent years (Panthera-DPN 2024).

Central Africa
In Central Africa, the largest population of lions is in the Bénoué Complex in Cameroon, where there are an estimated ~250 individuals (Bauer et al. 2016). However, it must be noted that this survey estimate is now a decade old, and it is suspected this population may have declined due to anthropogenic pressures such as poaching and habitat loss. The Chinko Nature Reserve in Central African Republic is estimated to have a population of ~170 individuals (Aebischer et al. 2020) and is likely the only population increasing in Central Africa (Aebischer T. pers. comm. 2023). Zakouma National Park, although last surveyed in 2013, was estimated to have ~167 lions (Olléova and Dogringar 2013). Unfortunately, no other formal surveys of lions in Central Africa have been done. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, lions are present in Virunga National Park and Garamba National Park. Records of lion presence (in the form of a single male lion) were confirmed in Gabon in 2017, but the last observation was in 2019, thus suggesting (although not confirmed) that lions might no longer occur here.

East Africa
In East Africa, lions are found in Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. Between 2018 and 2021, Kenya Wildlife Services conducted a nation-wide survey of the country’s carnivores and estimated ~2, 489 lions (Elliot et al. 2021). It must be noted that only eleven areas were formally surveyed, which estimated ~1,588 lions, and an additional 26 areas were not surveyed but population sizes were “guessed” by experts, generating an estimated ~901 lions in these unsurveyed areas (Elliot et al. 2021). In Kenya, the largest lion population is found in Maasai Mara National Reserve, the Mara Triangle and several bordering conservancies (Mara North, Lemek, Ol Chorro, Enonkishu, Olare Orok, Motorogi, Naboisho, Ol Kinyei, Siana, Ol Derkesi, Olarro North and Olarro South), where there are an estimated 556 (532 – 580) lions > 1 year of age (Elliot et al. 2021). Tsavo Conservation Area in the east of Kenya has ~460 (340 – 584) lions > 1 year of age (Elliot et al. 2021). Other lion populations in Kenya include the Amboseli ecosystem (~141 individuals > 1 year of age), Nairobi National Park (~25 individuals > 1 year of age), Meru National Park (~55 individuals > 1 year of age), Samburu and surrounding conservancies (~45 individuals > 1 year of age), Laikipia ranches including Ol Pejeta Conservancy and Solio Ranch (~306 individuals > 1 year of age), Shompole Conservancy and Olkiramatian Conservancy (~27 individuals > 1 year of age), Lake Nakuru National Park (~11 individuals > 1 year of age) among a few other reserves (Elliot et al. 2021). Lions are present in three national parks in Uganda: Queen Elizabeth National Park (~39 individuals > 1 year of age), Murchison Falls National Park (~240 individuals > 1 year of age) and Kidepo Valley National Park (~12 individuals > 1 year of age) (UWA 2024). This amounts to a national total of ~291 lions > 1 year of age in Uganda (UWA 2024). Tanzania is a significant stronghold for lions and has the largest population in Africa, although some populations remain unsurveyed. Intensive monitoring in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (Ngorongoro Crater and Ndutu) estimate ~74 individuals (Jansson and Spong 2019). Approximately ~166 lions are estimated within the Tarangire-Manyara Ecosystem (Kissui 2020).  Surveys in Maswa Game Reserve indicate a population of ~303 individuals (Mwampeta et al. 2021), and – although more precise overall estimates are lacking – Serengeti National Park contains a substantial population, as a result of the high population densities observed (Belant et al. 2019). Another important population is in Selous-Nyerere, where estimated population densities suggest a likely population of c. 1000 individuals > 1 year of age in the core ecosystem and surrounding less-strictly protected areas (Searle et al. 2025; not including nearby Mikumi and Udzungwa NPs, however, which have never been formally surveyed). The Ruaha-Rungwa ecosystem was found to host a gradient of lion population densities (Strampelli et al. 2022b), and approximately 800 individuals over 1 year of age were estimated to inhabit the complex (Strampelli et al. 2022c). On the coast of Tanzania, Saadani National Park has an estimated ~40 lions (Masenga et al. 2018). Formal surveys are still lacking for a number of populations, however, particularly in the west of the country, but also in a number of National Parks and Game Reserves, as well as less-strictly protected areas (Forest Reserves, Game Controlled Areas, Open Areas, Wildlife Management Areas) adjacent to other surveyed Protected Areas, especially in the north, centre, and south of the country. Lions were locally extirpated from Rwanda due to unsustainable levels of poaching. In 2015, six lions were reintroduced into Akagera and the population has since increased to ~54 individuals (African Parks 2024).

In Sudan, lions are present in Dinder National Park. A survey in 2019, estimated ~56 lions in a core area of the park but it is estimated that Dinder National Park and the adjoining Alatash and Bejimiz National Parks in Ethiopia together could hold as many as 150 lions (Mohammed et al. 2019). Population estimates developed through formal surveys are completely lacking for South Sudan where lions are present in several protected areas including: Southern National Park, Zaref Game Reserve, Badingilo National Park and Boma National Park. While lions occur throughout Ethiopia, there is limited data regarding their extant distribution and population estimates. In 2009, Nechisar National Park was estimated to have 15 lions (Yirga et al. 2014). It is recommended that surveys be done across Ethiopia to determine population estimates, including Gambella National Park, Gura Ferda Forest Priority Area and Omo-Tama-Mago complex (the Tama Community Conservation Area, Omo National Park, and Mago National Park, Nechisar National Park, Chebera Churchura National Park, Maze National Park, Kefa Biosphere Reserved Area, Bale Mountains National Park, Awash National Park, the surrounding Afar’s Landscape, and Borana and Gerraile National Parks.

Southern Africa
Lions occur throughout Southern Africa in Angola, Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. In Angola, lions occur in Luando Integral Nature Reserve, but it is unlikely there are more than 10 individuals (African Lion Database, unpublished data 2025), and in Luengue-Luiana National Park, where there are likely less than 10 lions (Funston et al. 2017; Panthera, unpublished data). The largest lion population in Zambia is in the Greater Kafue Landscape, with recent surveys suggesting the presence of over 200 individuals (Panthera, DNPW, ZCP, unpublished data). Intensive monitoring of lions in South Luangwa National Park and the adjacent Lupande & Lumimba Game Management Areas estimate ~170 individuals (Mweetwa et al. 2018). Lions in Liuwa Plain National Park were almost locally extirpated, but following a reintroduction of a few individuals, the population is now at ~16 individuals (African Parks, unpublished data 2024). Recent estimates show a stable population of ~800 lions in Namibia (Hanssen et al. 2022), with the largest population in the country occurring in Etosha National Park (~335 lion; Goelst et al. 2018). Lion populations have been depleted in Khaudum National Park and the neighboring Nyae Nyae Conservancy, areas that once supported stable and established prides (Hanssen et al. 2022) and are having difficulty rebounding. Few lions occur in Bwabwata National Park – one pride per core area and there are an estimated 20 lions in the Kwando Core Area (Hanssen et al. 2022). The largest population of lions in Botswana is likely in the Central Kalahari, although formal surveys have not been conducted since 2012, when the population was estimated to be ~718 lions. Gemsbok National Park forms part of the transboundary Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park with South Africa and supports a lion population, but surveys have not been carried out here since 2010. A small population of lions (~20 individuals) occurs in Khutse Game Reserve (south of the Central Kalagadi - Leopard Ecology & Conservation, unpublished data 2022). Currently, there are no total estimates for lions in Hwange National Park, however, intensive monitoring does occur within the park’s core area. In the Northern areas of Zimbabwe, population estimates are available for Matusadona National Park (~31 individuals, African Parks unpublished data 2024) and Mana Pools National Park (~94 individuals, Seymour-Smith and Loveridge 2015). The lion population in Bubye Valley is ~296 individuals (Bubye Valley Conservancy, unpublished data 2024). Savé Valley Conservancy and Gonarezhou National Park form part of the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area with Mozambique and South Africa. Estimates indicate ~251 individuals in Savé Valley and ~72 lions in Gonarezhou (Loveridge et al. 2022). In Malawi, stable to increasing lion populations occur in Majete Wildlife Reserve (~53 individuals) and Liwonde National Park (~15 individuals; African Parks, unpublished data 2024). Transient individuals are found in Nyika National, Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve and Kasungu National Park in Malawi (African Lion Database, unpublished data. 2024). Mozambique has a national lion population of between 1,208–1,489 free-roaming adult and subadult lions in conservation areas, with the country presenting the 7th largest population in Africa (Almeida et al. in review). However, due to intense anthropogenic pressures, the population is declining. The largest population is in Niassa Special Reserve (~806 individuals), but this population has been declining since 2012 (Niassa Carnivore Project, unpublished data 2024). Chipanje Chetu Community Conservation Area, bordering Niassa, is estimated to have ~84 individuals (Niassa Carnivore Project, unpublished data 2024). Lions in Gorongosa National Park previously numbered ~60 individuals, but due to conservation efforts there are now ~183 individuals (Gorongosa Restoration Project, unpublished data 2022). Following local extirpations attributed to anthropogenic causes, lions were reintroduced into Zambezi Delta in 2018 and Coutada 9 in 2010, and now number 66 (Zambezi Delta, unpublished data 2024) and 44 individuals (Rio Save Safaris Lda. unpublished data 2022) respectively. Lions were previously extirpated from Zinave National Park, but in recent years 6 male lions have become resident in the sanctuary area of the park (Abrao pers. comm. 2024). In the last decade, Limpopo National Park has experienced a significant decline in its lion population due to mortalities caused by human-lion conflict and targeted poaching for parts and there are now less than 50 individuals (Everatt et al. 2019). Smaller lion populations occur in Karingani Game Reserve, Sabi Game Park, Mahimba Game Farm, Muanza Game Farm and Lembombo Conservancy (African Lion Database, unpublished data 2025). South Africa’s population of lions is increasing. The two largest populations occur in the Kruger National Park (~1,803 individuals; Beukes et al. 2017) and the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park (~242 individuals; Beukes et al. 2017). Adjoining the Kruger National Park are a network of private nature reserves where there are approximately 483 lions (Selier et al. 2025). South Africa’s only free-roaming and unfenced population of lions occurs in the north of the country in the Limpopo Province in Mapungubwe National Park. However, this population is small – no more than 20 individuals (African Lion Database, unpublished data 2025). Within South Africa there is a network of small, fenced reserves that are collectively managed as a metapopulation. In 2024 there were 56 reserves with approximately 885 lions (Selier et al. 2025). This is an estimated national population of ~3,427 individuals (1,733 mature individuals; Selier et al. 2025).

Approach to uncertainty and data limitations
Due to insufficient confidence in earlier or recent population estimates, they cannot be employed to estimate overall, real-time trends, and as such, groupings of scientific time series site estimates have been used as a proxy. Although these data are more numerous for lions than for other big Panthera cats, there is still considerable uncertainty inherent in both the data (Bauer et al. 2015) and the treatment of it to estimate species population trend.

The difficulties in comparing survey data are recognized. In some cases, survey methods varied between years, and for some surveys accuracy may have been low, but the complete data set shows an obvious trend that is unlikely to be an artefact of methodological insufficiencies. There is inherent bias when using survey data as these often come from well-monitored areas with some element of protection and limited anthropogenic threat pressure (Packer et al. 2013, Bauer et al. 2015). This could bias overall results to a more optimistic state as declining populations do not necessarily have supporting data due to limited monitoring on the ground. For example, the data available for the Burkina Faso component of the W-Arly-Penjari Complex indicates a steady, but slow, increase in population size between 2012 and 2015. However, due to the recent and ongoing violent extremist presence in the area (Lhoest et al. 2022), protected area management is no longer present – offering little protection to species. This is very likely to have resulted in population declines of all wildlife, including lions (as explained in the Threat Section below). However, due to the simple fact that conducting rigorous surveys on the ground is near impossible, population data to support the well-based assumption that this subpopulation is declining are not available. Robust and regular surveys must be carried out in future that promote more reliable assessments of trends.

Fenced Reserves
Another aspect of the assessment that needs to be documented is our treatment of small, fenced reserves in Southern Africa (specifically South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Malawi). Most of the population increases have occurred in these areas where management practices include translocations and reintroductions. Only reserves whose management intensity allows lions to be classified as ‘wild’ (IUCN Standards and Petitions Committee 2024) or "lightly managed species" and "intensively managed species" as defined by Redford et al. (2011) are included. In South Africa, there are 50 small, fenced reserves that are represented as one subpopulation that we refer to as South Africa’s Managed Metapopulation (J. Selier pers. comm. 2022) and are included in this assessment. Management of lions should consider the ‘type, scale, frequency, and effects of the suite of management interventions’ (Hayward et al. 2015) and aim to mimic natural processes and to retain adaptive potential and follows a nationally coordinated meta-population management approach (Mallon and Stanley Price 2013, Hayward et al. 2015). It is further recognized that fences have been documented as effective tools in lion conservation (Packer et al. 2013). Thus, these populations are 'lightly managed' as defined in the IUCN Red List Guidelines (IUCN Standards and Petitions Committee 2022) and can therefore be considered "wild" and are included in the assessment.

The African Lion has a broad habitat tolerance, and is absent only from tropical rainforest and the interior of the Sahara Desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996). There are records of lions at elevations of more than 4,000 m in the Bale Mountains in Ethiopia and on Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania (West and Packer 2013). Although lions drink regularly when water is available, they can obtain their moisture requirements from prey and even plants (such as the Tsama Melon in the Kalahari Desert), and thus can survive in very arid environments.
 
Lions are the most social of the cats, with related females remaining together in prides, and related and unrelated males forming coalitions competing for tenure over prides. Prides can vary in size and up to 30 individuals have been observed in larger ecosystems, although the average pride size (including males and females) is four to six adults (Smuts 1976). In the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (South Africa/Botswana) it was found that the average pride size was 11.3 ± 1.1 individuals for prides in the park; similar in size to other areas (11.8 individuals in Kruger National Park, 12.5 in Etosha National Park (Funston 2011)).

Lions tend to live at higher densities than most other felids, but with a wide variation from 1.5 adults per 100 km² in southern African semi-desert to 55/100 km² in parts of the Serengeti (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). Pride ranges can vary widely even in the same region: e.g., from 266–4,532 km² in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park of South Africa (Funston 2001). In the Kunene region in Namibia, the mean home range size of a pride of 18 male individuals was 4,344 km² (range 618–12,642 km²; Hanssen et al. 2022), while in Etosha the average home range size was 600 km² (range 150–2,075 km²; Stander, 1991). Across regions, lion home ranges can also vary significantly. For example, lion home ranges in Tarangire National Park in Tanzania can range between 52–616 km² (Laizer et al. 2014). In contrast, in more arid environments such as Etosha National Park, home ranges up to 2,075 km² have been recorded (Stander 1991). Mean home ranges for lions in Waza National Park were estimated to be 1,015 km² (Tumenta 2012).

Medium- to large-sized ungulates (including antelopes, zebra, and wildebeest) make up large portions of lion’s prey base (Hayward and Kerley 2005), but lions will take almost any animal, from rodents to rhinos. Out of the five preferred prey species in Southern Africa (Hayward et al. 2007), three historically never occurred in West and Central Africa and giraffe are rare in that region, leaving only buffalo but even that species is notably smaller there. Instead, medium sized species such as Kob (Kobus kob) are the preferred prey in West and Central Africa (Bodendorfer et al. 2006, Bauer et al. 2008, Tumenta et al. 2013). Some lion populations have adapted to specialize in unique prey species within their own environments, such as Elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the Chobe (Power and Compion 2009) and in Hwange (Loveridge et al. 2006), and Cape Fur Seals (Artocephalus pusillus) on the Skeleton Coast in Namibia (Stander 2019). Lions will also scavenge, displacing other predators (such as the Spotted Hyaena, Crocuta crocuta, and Cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus) from their kills.

In India, Asiatic lions prefer the most mesic and thick canopy forest vegetation available to them in the dry deciduous forests of Gir (Jhala et al. 2009). The Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary is surrounded by cultivated areas and inhabited by the pastoralist Maldharis and their livestock (Meena et al. 2014). Domestic cattle have historically been a major part of the Asiatic lion's diet, although the Chital Deer (Axis axis) is the most common prey species. Mean pride size, measured by the number of adult females, tends to be smaller than for African lions: most Gir prides range between two and eleven adult females (Jhala et al. 2009).

The main threats to lions include continued habitat loss and conversion of safe space. This has led to several subpopulations becoming small and isolated (Bauer et al. 2008, 2020). Other significant threats include indiscriminate killing (primarily due to retaliatory or pre-emptive killing to protect human life and livestock), and prey base depletion (Wolf and Ripple 2016). In recent years the targeted poaching for parts (Everatt et al. 2019, African Lion Database, unpub. data 2023) and violent extremism/warfare (Lhoest et al. 2022) have emerged as significant threats to the species. Furthermore, while trophy hunting has a net positive impact in some areas, it may, at times, contribute to local population declines in Botswana, Namibia, Tanzania, Zimbabwe (Packer et al. 2009, 2011, 2013), Cameroon (Croes et al. 2011) and Zambia (Rosenblatt et al. 2014). In general, there seem to be an increasing number of lions poached through snaring and targeted poaching in many areas across the species range (e.g., the Greater Kruger, Zambeze Delta, Niassa Reserve, Waza National Park, and WAP complex (African Lion Database unpublished data 2023)).

A survey study by Nicholson (2024) found that the lack of/inconsistent funding for area operations, retaliatory or pre-emptive killing of lions, and human encroachment were the most severe local-level threats to the lions in East Africa. In southern Africa, the three most severe local threats were identified as the lack of/inconsistent funding for area operations, human encroachment, and development of infrastructure close to or within the area (Nicholson 2024). At a global level, climate change and a ban on lion trophy hunting were identified as the most severe threats to lions in Southern Africa. In East Africa, climate change and civil unrest/ local war (as it reduces effective management) were identified as the most severe threats to lions (Nicholson 2024). The study found that a loss of natural prey base (driven by poaching), targeted poaching for parts and small, isolated populations were perceived to be the most severe local-level threats to the species in West Africa. In Central Africa, the three perceived most severe local threats were a loss of natural prey base (driven by poaching), human encroachment, and retaliatory or pre-emptive killing of lions (Nicholson 2024). At a global level, civil unrest and local war were perceived as the most severe threat to lions in both West and Central Africa, as this threat reduces effective management (Nicholson 2024).

Habitat loss and conversion
Continued habitat loss and conversion in the subspecies’ range has led to several subpopulations becoming small and isolated (Bauer et al. 2020, Tumenta et al. 2013), such as Waza National Park in northern Cameroon and Niokolo-Koba National Park in Senegal. Continued land use change from natural habitat to agricultural use has also led to further habitat loss in Waza National Park and parts of the Bénoué Complex (Nicholson et al. 2023).

Conflict
The economic impact of stock raiding can be significant. Patterson et al. (2004) estimated that each lion costs ranchers in Kenya living alongside Tsavo East National Park US$290 per year in livestock losses. Likewise, annual losses of cattle to lions in areas adjacent to Waza National Park in Cameroon comprised only about 3.1% of all livestock losses but were estimated to represent more than 22% of financial losses, amounting to about US$370 per owner (Bauer 2003). Generally, economic losses caused by lions are among some of the highest reported in East Africa when compared to other wildlife species (Muriuki et al. 2017). Consequently, lions are persecuted intensely in livestock areas across Africa; their scavenging behaviour makes them particularly vulnerable to poisoned carcasses put out to eliminate predators. Little actual information exists on the number of lions killed as problem animals by local people, even though this is considered the primary threat to their survival outside protected areas. However, some case studies exist. For example, Hazzah et al. (2014) estimated that on average, 12.5 lions were killed per year between 2003 and 2008 by residents of Olgulului Group Range in Kenya. High number of lion killings have also been recorded in the Omo-Tama Complex over the past five years (Asfaw et al. In prep). Implementation of appropriate livestock management measures, coupled with problem animal control measures and mechanisms for compensating livestock losses, are some of the primary responses to resolving human-lion conflict (Hazzah et al. 2014). For example, Sibanda et al. (2021) studied lion conflict in three communal areas in northwestern Zimbabwe (~3,306 km²) and recorded 46 lions killed between 2008 and 2017. Following the implementation of livestock protection strategies, livestock losses generally decreased, and the number of lions killed per year declined by 41 % (Sibanda et al. 2021).

Prey depletion
Prey depletion is generally defined as the substantial decline in prey abundance, and its effect on the survival and reproduction of lions is still fairly under-studied (Vinks et al. 2021). Generally, prey depletion reduces an area’s carrying capacity, which therefore reduces lion density without necessarily reducing their survival rates (Vinks et al. 2021). Lion population density across the species’ range is known to track the biomass of principle lion prey species; large wild herbivores (Hayward et al. 2007, van Orsdol 1984). The latter are increasingly under threat from an unsustainable and increasingly commercialized bushmeat trade, leading to collapses in prey populations across large parts of savanna Africa (Lindsey et al. 2013). Regional lion population trends reported in this assessment, are closely mirrored by time series data on main lion prey species from 78 herbivore populations monitored between 1970 and 2005 in West, Eastern and Southern Africa; while herbivore population sizes increased by 24% in Southern Africa, they declined by 52% in Eastern Africa and by 85% in West (Ripple et al. 2015). It is likely that these declines have been even more dramatic since the publication of this study, although precise data is lacking.

Bycatch in snares
Wire snare poaching is widespread throughout much of the species’ range. Snares are generally set in an effort to capture species for bushmeat, although lions are not commonly targeted. However, lions are often captured in snares intended for other species (Becker et al. 2013, Everatt et al. 2015, Bauer et al. 2020). This threat has the potential to result in severe population declines of all large carnivores if not mitigated accordingly. For example, Becker et al. (2013) found that ~11.5% of the adult and subadult lion population and 20% of the adult (>4 years) males within the population were snared at some point (82% were treated and recovered).

Use of lion bones and body parts and derivatives for traditional medicine
While there has historically been some level of illegal trade and use of lion bones and body parts for traditional medicine, this threat has escalated in recent years and has emerged in several countries within the species range (Williams et al. 2017, Everatt et al. 2019, Coals et al. 2022). More information on this threat can be found under the Use and Trade section above.

Trophy hunting
Trophy hunting is carried out in several sub-Saharan African countries and is considered an important management tool for conserving wild land, providing financial resources for lion conservation for both governments and local communities (Holechek and Valdez 2018). However, there is concern that management regimes have not always been sufficient to deter unsustainable offtakes (Packer et al. 2006). A sustainable offtake level of one male lion per 2,000 km² has been recommended (Packer et al. 2011), but offtake has been higher in many areas, which suggests that it is potentially a threat (Lindsey et al. 2013b) to continued survival of lions in these areas. Trophy hunting can thus be a tool for conservation but also a threat, depending on how it is regulated and managed (Loveridge et al. 2007, 2023; Packer et al. 2011). Hunter et al. (2013) cautioned that regulatory measures which reduce the profitability of lion trophy hunting could have widespread negative impacts on wildlife-based land use, anti-poaching, and tolerance of lions outside protected areas.

Violent extremism and warfare
There are often unforeseen and dramatic consequences and severe environmental impacts resulting from violent extremism adjacent to protected areas (Bouley et al. 2018, Lhoest et al. 2022). Several protected areas (e.g., W-Arly-Pendjari complex, Niassa) within lion range are under pressure from rebel groups or violent extremist organisations. Unsafe areas result from such threats making conservation action and protected area management challenging. Protected areas which are occupied by such groups generally lack park management, see increased and unmanaged livestock invasion, suffer habitat loss due to increased crop planting and experience increased bushmeat poaching.

This has resulted in local extinctions of lions in Comoé National Park (Côte d’Ivoire), where, following the civil war in 2002, the park was abandoned, resulting in all the intensification of existing threats, and causing the demise of many species (Aglissi et al. 2023). Several protected areas across the species range are increasingly threatened by rebel factions and violent extremist organizations.

This threat needs to be particularly highlighted in the W-Arly-Pendjari complex (Burkina Faso, Niger and Benin). The W-Arly-Pendjari complex has the last remaining stronghold for lions in West and Central Africa. With the WAP being under severe threat from extremist groups in Niger and Burkina Faso, it places significant threat on this vital remaining population of lions. Supporting this claim is the fact that aerial survey reports in W Park in Burkina Faso, which is currently occupied by extremist groups, indicate that the area is devoid of any large mammalian wildlife (Ouindeyama et al. 2021, Lhoest et al. 2022). While lions may still occur throughout the complex, if the situation in the complex remains unchanged, this population may likely become significantly reduced, if not extinct altogether.

Other
We expect that climate change will likely have a negative impact on the species; however, the extent of this impact is largely unknown.

The lack of sufficient funding to support protected areas with lions poses a significant challenge to their successful conservation (Lindsey et al. 2018). It has been estimated that protected areas with lions require between $1,000 to $2,000/km² annually to be managed effectively, yet receive, on average, $200/km² annually (Lindsey et al. 2018). Nearly all protected areas in Africa with lions are inadequately funded, with deficits totally $0.9 to $2.1 billion.

Use of lion bones and body parts and derivatives for traditional medicine
Illegal trade in lion body parts for medicinal purposes is considered a threat to African lion subpopulations (according to the regional lion conservation strategies, which call on countries to prohibit (IUCN 2006a) and control (IUCN 2006b) trade in lion bone and other parts and products) as well as to the small subpopulation in India's Gir Forest (M. Ventraman pers. comm. 2014). Traditional medicinal practices in Africa and Asia are perceived to be the main uses that require lion body parts and bones (Williams et al. 2017). Specific parts such as skin, claws, teeth, and bones are the most in demand parts (Williams et al. 2017, African Lion Database, unpub. data 2023). However, other parts such as tails, reproductive parts and internal organs are also harvested (African Lion Database unpublisched data 2023).

While there has historically been some level of illegal trade and use of lion bones and body parts for traditional medicine, this threat has escalated in recent years and has emerged in several countries within the species range (Williams et al. 2017, Everatt et al. 2019; Coals et al. 2020, 2022). In Mozambique the targeted poaching of lions and suspected poaching incidences are high, accounting for 74% and 48% of anthropogenic lion mortalities in Niassa and Limpopo National Park respectively, with evidence of domestic, regional, and international trade of lion parts and derivatives (Everatt et al. 2019, Mole and Newton 2020). In South Africa, lions within captive facilities are intentionally killed (generally poisoned) for body parts, presumably to sell to international markets.

The increase in the number of lions killed in Mozambique for their parts is of particular concern (African Lion Database unpublished data 2023, Almeida et al. in review) and may cause the lion subpopulations within the country to decline. However, there is currently little evidence of this threat being a major concern in other areas across their range.

Panthera leo leo is listed under CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) in Appendix II. However, the Indian subpopulation is included in Appendix I. As for the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), Panthera leo is included under CMS Appendix II, which covers species that need international cooperation for their conservation and management. These listings provide legal frameworks for protecting the species and subspecies from illegal trade and ensuring that lions are effectively conserved across their range.

In Africa, lions are present in numerous large and well-managed protected areas (Nicolson 2024, Lindsey et al. 2018, Loveridge et al. 2022), and remain one of the most popular animals on the must-see lists of tourists and visitors to Africa (Nzomo et al. 2020). Most range states in East and Southern Africa have an infrastructure which supports wildlife tourism, and in this way, lions generate significant cash revenue for park management and local communities and provide a strong incentive for wildland conservation.

A range of conservation actions are currently in place for lions across their African range, including protected area designation, anti-poaching patrols, and community-based conservation programs. Several countries have national lion action plans, including: Benin, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Regional conservation strategies for lions have been established for West and Central Africa (IUCN 2006a) and Eastern and Southern Africa (IUCN 2006b). However, these strategies are nearly two decades old and require reassessment and significant updates. By identifying shared priorities, these regional strategies offer the potential to significantly enhance lion conservation and management at national, community, and landscape levels. While all these documents show awareness of the threats and recognition of solutions, the continued decline in lion range and numbers show that political priority and funding are not sufficient (Lindsey et al. 2018, Packer et al. 2013, Robson et al. 2022). In 2022, a strategic action plan for the recovery of the Northern lion in Africa was devised (Funston et al. 2022).

Key conservation efforts should include effective protected area management including funding (Lindsey et al. 2018, 2021; Bauer et al. 2020, Robson et al. 2022), mitigating anthropogenic causes of mortality such as lion-human conflict (Bauer et al. 2020, Sibanda et al. 2021) and snaring (Becker et al. 2013), and reducing or mitigating the negative effects of armed conflict (Bauer et al. 2020, Lhoest et al. 2022).

In some regions, lion monitoring programs, human-wildlife conflict mitigation strategies (such as predator-proof bomas and compensation schemes), and targeted law enforcement have had measurable conservation benefits. However, further action is required to address ongoing and emerging threats. Strengthening community engagement and benefit-sharing mechanisms near lion habitats remains crucial to fostering coexistence. Enhanced regulation and enforcement of international and domestic trade, particularly related to lion body parts, is essential to reduce illegal offtake. Better management of trophy hunting—through transparent quotas, age-based criteria, and improved governance—is also needed where it is practiced. In addition, increased investment in securing key protected areas, expanding safe corridors between lion populations, and improving data collection on human-lion conflict and lion mortality outside protected areas are realistic and impactful steps that can support the long-term survival of the species.

Mitigating human-wildlife conflict, particularly with lions, requires a combination of preventative and responsive strategies that are locally appropriate and community-driven (Anderson and Pariela 2005, Hazzah et al. 2014). Effective approaches include the use of predator-proof livestock enclosures (bomas), community-based livestock herding and early warning systems, and compensation or insurance schemes that offset the economic losses from depredation. Long-term success depends on building local tolerance for lions through benefit-sharing mechanisms—such as eco-tourism revenue or conservation incentives—and by involving communities in decision-making and conflict management. Education and awareness campaigns can also help shift perceptions and foster coexistence.
With the lion currently listed as Critically Endangered in West Africa and with declining populations within the region, urgent conservation action is required to prevent local extinctions within the region. Recent assessment of each of the subspecies indicates that the Northern lion subspecies (Panthera leo leo) is Endangered while the Southern lion subspecies (Panthera leo melanochaita) is Vulnerable.