Based on morphological analysis, Khorozyan et al. (2006) recognize Panthera pardus tulliana (Valenciennes, 1856) in western Türkiye and P. p. sindica (Pocock, 1930) in Pakistan, and possibly also parts of Afghanistan and Iran. They also consider P. p. ciscaucasica (Satunin, 1914) as the senior synonym for P. p. saxicolor.

Kitchener et al. (2017) in their revised taxonomy of the Felidae recognize the following eight Leopard subspecies:

• Panthera pardus pardus (Linnaeus, 1758): Africa
• Panthera pardus tulliana (Valenciennes, 1856; 1039): Türkiye, Caucasus, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan
• Panthera pardus fusca (Meyer, 1794): Indian subcontinent, Burma and China
• Panthera pardus kotiya Deraniyagala, 1949: Sri Lanka
• Panthera pardus delacouri Pocock, 1930b: Southeast Asia and probably southern China
• Panthera paruds orientalis (Schlegel, 1857) including japonensis: Eastern Asia from Russian Far East to China
• Panthera pardus melas (Cuvier, 1809; 152): Java
• Panthera pardus nimr (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1832): Arabian Peninsula.

The treatment by Kitchener et al. (2017) is followed by the IUCN Red List.

Leopards are widely distributed across Africa and Asia, but populations have become reduced and isolated and they are now extirpated from large portions of their historic range. Due to their wide geographic range, secretive nature and habitat tolerance, Leopards are difficult to categorize as a single species. Evidence suggests that Leopard populations have been dramatically reduced due to continued persecution from increased human populations (Thorn et al. 2013, Selvan et al. 2014, Abade et al. 2018, Bleyhl et al. 2021); habitat fragmentation (UN 2014); increased illegal wildlife trade (Datta et al. 2008, Rostro-Garcia et al. 2016); excessive harvesting for medicinal use and ceremonial use of skins, spiritual and cultural use of the body parts including skin, claws, teeth, tail, paws, skin and fat (Naude et al. 2020); prey base declines (Hatton et al. 2001, du Toit 2004, Fusari and Carpaneto 2006, Datta et al. 2008, Lindsey et al. 2014, Selvan et al. 2014); and poorly managed trophy hunting (Balme et al. 2009). Throughout North, East (specifically the Horn of Africa) and West Africa, Middle East, East and Southeast Asia, Leopards have suffered marked reductions and regional extirpations due to poaching for illegal wildlife trade, habitat loss and fragmentation, and prey loss. Human populations are increasing by 2.7 percent annually in sub-Saharan Africa according to the UN. Between 2022 and 2050, the fastest human population growth is projected to occur in Africa. The population in sub-Saharan Africa is projected to double by 2050 (https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population). The rate of cropland expansion accelerated in Africa over the past two decades. There was a more than twofold increase from 2016–2019 compared to 2004–2007. Countries in West, Central, and East Africa all saw large increases in cultivated land. Most of those new croplands were carved out of natural habitats rather than pasture or abandoned farmland (https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/149624/crop-expansion-accelerates-in-africa). Deforestation in southeast Asia has increased for palm oil and rubber plantations (Sodhi et al. 2010, Miettinen et al. 2011). Intensive snaring for bushmeat in southeast Asia has substantially reduced Leopard prey and caused direct mortality (Rostro-Garcia et al. 2023). Since the last assessment in 2016, evidence of genetic inbreeding among isolated populations has presented an additional threat to population viability (Marchenkova et al. 2020, Cho et al. 2022, Yin et al. 2023).

We estimate the current confirmed extant range of Leopards presented in this assessment (7,608,096 km², see map) is a reduction of 11% from the previous assessment from 2016 (8,515,935 km², Stein et al. 2016). Range losses in sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East, Southeast Asia and China counterbalance gains in India and Southwest Asia (Ostrowski et al. 2022). Only in Northeast China and Russian Far East the leopard’s breeding range increased during 20 years from 7,000 km² to 14,000 km² (Jiang et al. 2016, Vitkalova et al. 2023). Though our knowledge of the Leopard distribution is better today than in 2016, it is still limited at the national, regional and range-wide scales because reliable data on Leopard population trends are missing from large portions of their range. We suspect that suitable Leopard range has been reduced by >30% worldwide in the last three generations (22.3 years). We calculated generation length as 7.42 years (based on the formula presented in Pacifici et al. 2013 and data from wild Leopard populations presented in Balme et al. 2013).

Leopard population density across the species’ range is known to track the biomass of principle Leopard prey species, small, medium-size and large wild herbivores (Marker and Dickman 2005, Hayward et al. 2007). Prey species are increasingly under threat from an unsustainable bushmeat trade, leading to collapses in prey populations across large parts of savanna Africa (Lindsey et al. 2013, Ripple et al. 2016, Rogan et al. 2017). A commercialized bushmeat trade has caused an estimated 59% average decline in Leopard prey populations across 78 protected areas in West, East and southern Africa between 1970 and 2005 (Craigie et al. 2010). In southern Africa, illegal bushmeat hunting removes up to 620,000 kg of wild ungulates annually from the Okavango Delta, Botswana (Rogan et al. 2017). Though ungulate populations have increased by 24% in southern Africa, potential prey numbers have declined by 52% in East Africa and 85% in West Africa (Craigie et al. 2010). Bushmeat poaching in Mozambique (Hatton et al. 2001, Fusari et al. 2006) and Zambia (Lindsey et al. 2014) has severely reduced Leopard prey (Becker et al. 2013) inside and outside of protected areas. Many wildlife areas are suffering from substantial ungulate decline, including Zambian Game Management Areas and National Parks, maintain large mammal populations at 93.7% and 74.1% below estimated carrying capacity, respectively (Lindsey et al. 2014). With such reductions to Leopard prey, we infer a >50% loss of Leopard populations across East and West Africa within three generations. Through extensive poaching pressure also in Asia, many prey species, such as Sambar Deer in Malaysia, are threatened with regional extirpation throughout tropical forest systems (Corbett 2007, Kawanishi et al. 2014). Moreover, in Golestan National Park, Iran, the main prey of Persian Leopard declined by 66–89% since the 1970s due to poaching, with the only increase in prey population observed in Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), which is not being hunted due to religious beliefs (Ghoddousi et al. 2017).

In South-east and East Asia, intensive snaring and poaching for Leopard prey and targeted Leopard hunts for the wildlife trade market are taking place. The Indian Leopard is widespread, though somewhat fragmented outside protected areas and thus an easy target for illegal wildlife trade (Shivakumar et al. 2023). In 2018 alone, 90 Leopard poaching events were reported. A lot of the poaching incidents likely go unreported (Shivakumar et al. 2023). A regional survey found that Leopards in India have been poached at a rate of four individuals per week for the illegal wildlife trade (Raza et al. 2012b). Nowell and Pervushina (2014) found the illegal trade of Leopard parts was comparable to that of Tigers in Asian range States and derivative seizures with an average of 3.5 Leopards seizure cases per month in India since 2000. Data suggest that the illegal trade in Leopard skins for cultural regalia is rampant in southern Africa (Naude et al. 2020b).

Poorly managed trophy hunting adds to pressure on local Leopard populations. Balme et al. (2009) showed that trophy hunting was a key driver of Leopard population decline prior to intervention in northern KwaZulu-Natal. Similarly, Pitman et al. (2015) demonstrated that Leopards are over-harvested across much of their range in Limpopo Province, South Africa. In 2022, Muller et al. (2022) used web-sourced images of Leopard trophy hunts and showed that hunting violations were occurring in southern Africa, including non-permitted hunting of female Leopards in South Africa and Zambia, and illegal hounding in Namibia and South Africa. In recent years, concerns about unsustainable trophy hunting has led to temporary bans in South Africa (2016–2018), Zimbabwe and Botswana (2013–2022). In these countries, hunting has been reinstated (2015). Taken all together, the Leopard meets the A2cd criterion for Vulnerable, based on loss of habitat, prey depletion, and exploitation. These causes of the suspected reduction are neither fully documented nor fully understood; they have not ceased, and are likely to continue, and future decline is anticipated unless conservation efforts are taken.

Our assessment of Leopard distribution has been divided into two geographic regions: Africa and Asia. In order to describe these regions, we have further divided Leopard distribution into sub-regions to address local population trends.

The distribution map for Africa is based on point data (records with coordinates) divided into pre year 2000 and post year 2000 data and further subdivided into C1 (hard fact, verified records), C2 (expert-confirmed records) and C3 (not verifiable data) according to the SCALP categories for the Leopard. Most of these records (several thousand in total) came from peer-reviewed literature, but also from grey literature and Internet search engines (see Supplementary Information). To delineate the current distribution in Africa, we used C1 and C2 records from 2000 onwards and adjacent areas of potential suitable leopard habitat (i.e., results of habitat model prediction). Finally, we used existing local range maps and absence data from various local surveys to refine the distribution boundaries. In addition, land cover data and expert opinion were used, particularly in areas with no recent records due to the lack of scientific research.

The distribution map for Asia is based on the IUCN Red List Assessments for the Asian subspecies and the data originating from the Cat News Special Issue Nr 15 “The Persian Leopard” (see Supplementary Information).

Using IUCN Red List mapping guidelines, we categorized leopard range into extant, possibly extant, possibly extinct, and extinct.

Leopards in Africa
Leopards in Africa have seen the largest reduction in range since the previous assessment, partially because their Asian counterparts had already lost significant range, but also because there is increasing pressure on leopards particularly in West, Central and East Africa. We suggest that regional assessments be conducted to identify and highlight challenges and differences in conservation status.

North Africa: Leopard distribution in North Africa has been extirpated from 100% of their former range. It is unclear if there are still any remnant, isolated populations remaining at all (Durant et al. 2014). An adult male Leopard was killed in the Elba region of southeastern Egypt in retaliation for livestock depredation, though evidence of a breeding population is still uncertain (A. Nagy pers. comm. 2014). Continued camera-trapping efforts have failed to capture the presence of Leopard in the Sinai since 1995 (A. Nagy pers. comm. 2015). Leopards are thought to be extirpated from Morocco (F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2012).

West Africa: Leopard distribution in West Africa has been dramatically reduced. This reduction is likely due to habitat fragmentation, illegal killing of Leopards and their prey, but also to more rigorous survey efforts that have confirmed presence and likely absence across the region (P. Henschel pers. comm. 2023). Since the previous assessment, Leopard range has become increasingly fragmented with some of the larger subpopulations divided into smaller fragments. Leopards have been confirmed in Niger along the southwestern border with Benin and Burkina Faso (P. Henschel pers. comm. 2014), but previous reports in Aïr and Ténéré National Reserves are unconfirmed. Leopards are generally restricted to a few protected areas from Senegal in the west to Nigeria in the east. Leopards have been reported in the south of Senegal including Parc National de Niokolo-Koba In Guinea Bissau, Leopards are present in the Dulombi and Boé National Parks, as well as the linking corridor of Tchetche, whereas they are now scarce in the rest of the country (in the southwest) or rare and localized (rest of the hinterland, L. Palma, pers. comm. 2023). In Sierra Leone, there are possibly only very small remnant populations near Outamba Kilimi National Park and Gola National Forest as well as the eastern boundary with Guinea/ Liberia left. Leopard populations in Liberia have been recorded in Lofa-Mano National Park in the west and Sapo National Park in the east, but their status is unclear. In Ghana, Leopards are found along the boundary with Côte d’Ivoire and Mole National Park in the north and west though connectivity between these parks has likely been cut off because of fragmentation (P. Henschel and M. Drouilly pers. comm. 2023). In Côte d’Ivoire, leopards are present in Taï National Park (probably the highest density in West Africa, M. Drouilly pers. comm. 2023) and in Comoé National Park in the north. In Benin, Leopard are found along the northern boundary. Leopards are nearly absent from most of Nigeria and southern Mali.

Central Africa: Leopard numbers have decreased throughout Central Africa due to deforestation, illegal hunting for skins and snaring. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Leopard range was largely reduced in areas of increased human influence and areas relatively easy to access and therefore open to illegal hunting and bushmeat trade. Large portions of remaining forests in the northern region of the country have extant Leopard populations, however, Leopard populations are increasingly isolated in the south. In Cameroon, Leopards are found in the northern and southeastern portions of the country with possibly extant region potentially connecting them. The southern extant population connects to neighbouring countries: Gabon, Congo, and the southwestern corner of the Central African Republic (CAR). In Gabon, Leopards are found throughout the country with small absent pockets in the north. Leopards have likely lost ground in southern Congo. In the Central African Republic (CAR), Leopards are found in the southwest and eastern portions of the country. Leopards are found in the eastern border and western region of South Sudan. Leopards are present in southern Chad within the continuous population that crosses Central African Republic. Southeastern Chad, eastern CAR, western South Sudan and possibly also parts of northern DRC form one of the most important Leopard strongholds in Africa.

East Africa: The distribution of Leopards in East Africa has been reduced, in particular in Somalia, some parts of Kenya, Ethiopia and central Tanzania. Since last assessment, we have expanded Leopard range in Ethiopia connecting subpopulations from the west and southern border through the central highlands in one continuous population that extends into northern Somalia. This represents the only confirmed remaining range in Somalia with smaller isolated populations possibly extant. There are possible, isolated, remnant populations in Djibouti, Eritrea, and Sudan. Leopards in Kenya have retracted along the central spine of the country with range also extending along the southern border with Tanzania and small isolated populations along the coast though predictive modelling suggests there is potential Leopard occupancy in the eastern portion of the country (Broekhuis et al. 2022). Leopards are found in increasingly isolated populations in Uganda, primarily in the west and Rwanda with small possibly extant populations in Burundi. In Tanzania, Leopards are found throughout the Serengeti-Ngorogoro Crater system and to large parts of southern and western Tanzania. It is thought that Leopards are absent from the southeastern boundary of Lake Victoria to Central Tanzania potentially creating a widening separation between northern and southern populations.

Southern Africa: Southern Africa likely has one of the healthiest Leopard populations of their entire range. It is generally thought that Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique have declining but healthy Leopard populations outside of human dominated areas (C. Begg, A. Loveridge, M. Becker, E. Droge, A. Kusler, E. Rosenblatt and D. Smit pers. comm. 2023). In Angola, Leopard range has likely constricted to the southeastern region and smaller sub populations in the southwest and in Parque Nacional do Bicuar in the south (R. Groom pers. comm. 2023). In Namibia, Leopards range remains relatively stable since the last assessment inhabiting the northern portion of the country except for the highly populated northern region, the arid southeast farmlands and the desert coast (Richmond-Coogan 2019). Botswana has a continuous Leopard population throughout, aside from the large salt pan in the northcentral region. In South Africa, Leopards are found along the boundaries with Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique with dense populations located in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga regions. Leopards are also located in the Cape provinces of South Africa (Devens et al. 2018, Müller et al. 2022). Since the last assessment, it appears that connectivity between leopard populations in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi (and surrounding private reserves) and the southern portion of the Kruger National Park system has been severed. Leopards are likely extirpated from Lesotho and most of Eswatini aside from the northeast corner.

Leopards in Asia
The Arabian Peninsula and the Levant: In Oman, the Arabian Leopard remain in the Dhofar Mounatins of the south in the arid and monsoon habitats of Jabal Al Qamar, Jabal Al Qara and Jabal Samhan (Spalton and Al Hikmani 2014, Al Hikmani et al. 2023). It appears that there are no functional wild Leopard populations in Saudi Arabia (Dunford et al. 2023). Possibly individual Leopards occasionally disperse into Saudi Arabia from Yemen, although the border fence maybe a hindrance (Zafar-ul Islam et al. 2021, Al Hikmani et al. 2023). In Yemen the Arabian Leopard possibly still remains in the northern part of the western highlands, the central-western highland and in south Yemen. Itspresence has been confirmed in Hawf close to the Oman border (Mallon and Budd 2011, Al Hikmani et al. 2023). In Israel and Palestine the Leopard is locally extinct as well as in the United Arab Emirates, Jordan and Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula (Spalton and Al Hikmani 2006, Jacobson et al. 2016, Al Hikmani et al. 2023).

Middle East and Central Asia with the Caucasus: Leopards have a wide range of distribution across the region though their distribution has decreased to 27% of their historic range (Bleyhl et al. 2022). The habitat patches are spread over 11 countries from Türkiye in the West to Pakistan in the East, Russian North Caucasus and Kazakhstan to the North and Iran to the South (Bleyhl et al. 2022). Northern Iran and Central Asia hosts the largest population nucleus across the region, (Farhadinia et al. 2022), making it one of the largest continuous leopard hotspots across Asia (Jacobson et al. 2016). Almost 80% of the region’s leopards exist in Iran with 38.6% of the total area equal to 204,005 km2, mostly across the Alborz Mountains in the North and the Zagros Mountains in the Southwest (Bleyhl et al. 2022, Farhadinia et al. 2022, Ghoddousi et al. 2022). The Leopard population in Iran is connected with the populations in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and Iraqi Kurdistan, and possibly also to the populations in Türkiye, Afghanistan and Pakistan (Ghoddousi and Khorozyan 2023). However, the transboundary connectivity is not always functional due to border fences, roads and small size of the border populations (Ghoddousi and Khorozyan 2023). Camera trapping surveys in Tandoureh and Golestan National Parks, these two reserves hold the largest populations of Persian leopards in west and central Asia. The Leopard population in Kazakhstan is dependent on transboundary movements (Kaczensky et al. 2019). The first recent occurrence of Persian leopard in Kazakhstan was documented by camera-traps in 2018, but then this individual died in 2021 (Pestov et al. 2019). Opportunistic camera-trapping and observations over the past decade suggest that the Kopetdag and its extension into the Sunt Hasardag in the north and Badhyz in the southeast remains the most important stronghold of the leopard (though in low densities) in Turkmenistan (Farhadinia et al. 2022, T. Rosen, pers. obs., Team Bars Turkmenistan, 2021). The western range of Persian leopard lays along Zagros Mountains spanning between Iran, Iraq and Turkey, but often in smaller populations (Ghoddousi et al. 2010, Farhadinia et al. 2021). Recent camera trapping efforts revealed the occurrence of leopards in multiple sites in Iraq and Turkey, many of them without any record prior to 2000s (Horeni et al. 2022, Karataş et al. 2021, Ahmed et al. 2023), raising the hopes for the recovery of Persian leopards across its western range. In the Caucasus region, the range of this big cat is confined to the mountain ridges of the Lesser Caucasus, Greater Caucasus, Talysh Mountains and their branches, and is heavily fragmented due to human activities. Leopards occur in the southern part of the Zangezur Ridge and its vicinity shared by Armenia and Azerbaijan’s Nakhchyvan Republic as well as the Talysh Mountains. in southeastern Azerbaijan (Khorozyan et al. 2022), across the entire Kurdistan Region of Iraq, specifically in the Qara Dagh, Khoshk and Bamo Mountains (Ghoddousi et al. 2022), in central and eastern parts of Afghanistan, and finally, in the north Indus/Himalayan region of Pakistan (Ostrowski et al. 2022). A continuous monitoring through camera-trapping shows that there are small populations in Armenia and Azerbaijan (Khorozyan et al. 2022, Askerov et al. 2019). There are very few individuals recorded in the Turkish and Russian parts of the Caucasus and only one confirmed individual is known from Georgia. Iran has been the main country for leopard survival in the Caucasus containing the largest population in the region (Farhadinia et al. 2015, Khorozyan et al. 2022) with a guesstimate of fewer than 20 leopards (Bleyhl et al. 2021). Across its eastern range, the Persian leopards has been recently confirmed only from the central and eastern parts of Afghanistan as well as in lower Himalayan range and southwestern borders of Pakistan. However, there was no confirmed contemporary records (>2000) from Tajikistan and Uzbekistan where nowadays the species is believed to be extinct (Tajikistan) or quasi-extinct (Uzbekistan; Ostrowski et al. 2022).

The distribution in other countries including Afghanistan (Central parts of the Hindu Kush), Türkiye (Iğdir and Artvin provinces), Georgia (the Greater Caucasus), Russian North Caucasus (Dagestan, Kabardino-Balkarian and Chechen Republics as well as the reintroduced individuals in the Caucasus Biosphere Reserve and the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania), Uzbekistan (Babatag, Kugitang and Boysun Mts.) and Kazakhstan (Ustyurt Plateau) is either less poorly understood or not widespread (Ghoddousi and Khorozyan 2023).

South and Central Asia: There is some indication of its presence in the Babatag and Kugitang mountains of Uzbekistan (N. Marmazinskaya pers. comm. 2014). A confirmed record of Leopard was obtained in Afghanistan in the Bamyan province in 2011 in a camera trap image (Moheb and Bradfield 2014). In Pakistan, Leopards also inhabit broken hilly or mountainous country throughout Waziristan, Baluchistan and Sindh Kohistan in association with acacia scrub forest (Roberts 1997). Using DNA from scats, Leopard presence was confirmed in Ayubia National Park northeast Pakistan (Shehzad et al. 2014). Leopards occur widely in the forests of Bhutan and Nepal. Leopards are widespread across India in subpopulations in different regions including cameratrap confirmations in most tiger reserves (Athreya et al. 2013, Harihar et al. 2009, Shivakumar et al. 2023) and in Sri Lanka (Kittle and Watson 2020) they occur in a mosaic of habitat types including forests and cultivated lands. 

East Asia
Russian Far East, North East China and Korea: Historically, leopards inhabited East Manchurian Mountains in eastern parts of Jilin and Liaoning provinces, China, and southern part of Primorsky province, Russia until the Khanka Lake. The northernmost points were registered at N48°50′ on the Lesser Khingan ridge. It was quite common in mountains of Korea peninsula before their decline due to uncontrolled hunting and deforestation during the Japanese occupation and Korean War (1910-1953). During 20th century, the total area of Amur leopard decreased 40 times, and the only population survived in Southwest Primorsky province of Russia and nearby bordering areas of China and North Korea (Pikunov and Korkishko 1992, Shoemaker 1993, Gao et al. 1993, Pikunov et al. 2009, Tian et al. 2009). Due to the huge conservation efforts, the last wild population has been recovered, and in 2015 it’s range increased twice to about 7,000 km² (Jiang et al. 2017, Vitkalova et al. 2018). The area of Leopards in Russian Far East and nearby Northeast China was enlarged during 2015-2019 from 6,800 km² to 10,500 km² (Y. Darman pers. comm. 2024). By 2021, Leopards occupied all suitable habitats in the Southwest Primorsky province (about 5,380 km²), while transient males went 70 km to the North to Pogranichny Ridge and 60 km to the East to Shkotovo Plateau, crossing railroads, highways and belts of agricultural lands (Vitkalova et al. 2023, Y. Darman pers. comm. 2023). Animals from Russia became a source for species recovery in North East China (Jiang et al. 2015), where leopards already registered 147 km West from Sino-Russian border (G. Jiang pers. comm.). According to Chinese scientists, 32,750 km2 are potentially suitable for leopards in Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces, of which 8,625 km² are already inhabited by leopards (Jiang et al. 2016). The most important part is the Laoyeling Mountains, which selected as the first priority for leopard and tiger restoration in China (Li et al. 2012, Qi et al. 2021).

Central China: the historic range distribution of leopard south-west from Beijing at Chinese Loess Plateau has drastically decreased to small isolated areas in Hebei, Shanxi, Ningxia, northern Shaanxi and northern Henan provinces (Laguardia et al. 2017, Vitekere et al. 2021). The most densely populated habitat is found in the Taihang Mountains within the Shanxi Province (Li 2016, Yuli 2018, Zhu et al. 2021) and the Ziwuling forest region in Shaanxi Province (Minqi 2018, Yang et al. 2021). The 2018-2020 detail camera-trap survey of 41 protected areas in Shanxi and Shaanxi provinces discovered leopards at 141 sites in 17 nature reserve (Fu et al. 2023). Leopards appear to have been extirpated throughout all other provinces in central and eastern China, including Hunan, Hubei, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangxi and Jiangxi (Laguardia et al. 2017).

South-West China (western Sichuan, southern Qinghai and eastern Tibet regions): In Sichuan Province the current status of leopards is unclear, and all recent records are from the west, including camera trap images and fresh scats. Camera-trapping studies in ten protected areas in central Sichuan during 2002–2009 failed to record leopards, indicating this species might be extirpated from large areas of the province. In Tibet leopards were recently recorded in the east (S. Li pers. comm.). There are also several recent records of leopards from the east and south-central Tibet, including the forest zone of Mt Everest (Jacobson et al. 2016). In Qinghai Province, data from local interviews suggested leopards occur in the south (D. Wang pers. comm.). Leopards has recently been recorded in camera traps in two nature reserves in south-western Yunnan Province near the border with Myanmar but the population is low (probably < 10 individuals in each reserve) and is unlikely to recover because of the high levels of habitat fragmentation and poaching, and low prey numbers

Southeast Asia: Leopards have become extirpated or functionally extirpated throughout much of southeast Asia with populations remaining only in Thailand, Myanmar, Malaysia and Java, Indonesia. In recent years, Leopards have disappeared from Cambodia, southern China, Lao PDR and Viet Nam (S. Rostro-Garcia pers. comm. 2023). Leopards inhabit forests in Thailand in the Western Forest Complex (WEFCOM; Simcharoen et al. 2018) and in the Kaeng Krachan Forest Complex (Pliosungnoen 2022) along the borders with Myanmar. Leopards are still present in Malaysia but are now absent from large portions of the country. Leopards have been confirmed in 22 forest patches on the island of Java, representing only 9% of the landmass of the island with estimates of 319 individuals (Wibisono et al. 2018, 2021). Recent surveys and conservation efforts estimate a population of 319 individuals that are more isolated than previously thought (Wibisono et al. 2018). Researchers emphasize connectivity between priority landscapes that are predicted as important extension for subpopulations (Wibisono et al. 2021).

Highly adaptable and widely distributed, Leopards can persist in areas where other large carnivores have been extirpated. However, Leopards are declining throughout most of their range (Jacobson et al. 2016). There are no robust estimates of the total number of mature individuals’ range-wide, but several Asian subspecies were assessed as Endangered or Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List in 2016 and should retain these listings in 2023 based on the following population estimates and population trends:

• Amur Leopard (P. p. orientalis): Critically Endangered (C2a(ii); D, Jackson and Nowell 2008).
• Amur population: CR C2a(ii): about 129–130 mature individuals (Wen et al. 2022, Vitkalova et al. 2023, Y. Darman, pers. comm. 2023).
• North China population: CR C2a(i), about 174–348 (Laguardia et al. 2017).
• Arabian Leopard (P. p. nimr): Critically Endangered (CR C2a(i), Al Hikmani et al. 2023): 70–84 mature individuals.
• Javan Leopard (P. p. melas): Endangered (EN C2a(i), Wibisono et al. 2021): 319 mature individuals.
• Sri Lankan Leopard (P. p. kotiya): Vulnerable (VU D1, Kittle and Watson 2020): 776–777 mature individuals.
• Persian Leopard (P. p. tulliana): Endangered (EN C2a(i), Ghoddousi and Khorozyan 2023): 750–1,044.
• Indian Leopard (P. p. fusca) – Near Threatened (NT A2cd, Shivakumar et al. 2023): >15,000
• Indochinese Leopard (P. p. delacouri)- Critically Endangered (CR A2b+3b+4b, Rostro-Garcia et al. 2019): 77–766 mature individuals

[Note that although the assessment for Amur Leopard (P. p. orientalis), published in 2008, has not changed, this assessment no longer appears on The IUCN Red List as the information within that assessment needs to be updated to be brought into line with the species-level assessment].

This current (2023) assessment looked at available information on Leopard status on a regional basis (as discussed below). Across the majority of range, Leopards have declined substantially (>30%) over the last three generations as determined by extensive population surveys, expert input and indirect measures supporting our conclusion that Leopards remain listed as Vulnerable (criteria A2cd). Over the past three generations (22.3 years) regional Leopard populations in the Middle East, East and South-east Asia, West, parts of Central and East Africa have seen substantial range declines due to habitat fragmentation and forest clearing, prey reductions from the bushmeat trade, illegal harvest for skins and human-wildlife conflict and retaliation for livestock depredation. Leopards have completely disappeared from regions of North Africa where they were recorded in the previous assessment. Greater survey efforts in Java have identified 22 subpopulations (Wibisono et al. 2018). In the Caucasus, Leopards have maintained their populations or increased due to improved survey methods, expanded range or intensive conservation efforts. In Russian Far East and North East China, the transboundary population and its range has increased substantially due to creation of large national parks with good protection (details see Vitkalova et al. 2023). Although Leopard range has expanded due to greater survey techniques, the whole Indian Leopard population is suspected to have decreased by 24.5% over the last three generations (details see Shivakumar et al. 2023).

A predictive model was created using 392 leopard estimates range-wide to generate a global population estimate of 261,636 individuals (interquartile range of 146,768– 461,512; Pranzini et al. 2023). This estimate and subspecies estimates are higher than those provided by individual subspecies assessments and represent a strong baseline from which a revised estimate can be generated.

AFRICA
There are few reliable data on changes in the Leopard (P. p. pardus) status (distribution or abundance) throughout Africa over the last three generations, although there is compelling evidence that subpopulations have likely declined considerably. Robust longitudinal data on 47 Lion (Panthera leo) subpopulations—a sympatric large carnivore—demonstrated a 42% decline in abundance across populations in the last three generations (22.3 yrs) (Balme et al. 2013). Lion population trends decreased in West, Central and East Africa, and increased in Southern Africa. Most of the factors driving Lion population declines (e.g., habitat loss and fragmentation, retaliatory killing due to conflict, poorly managed trophy hunting) also affect Leopards. Indeed, pressure on Leopard populations is likely greater as a larger proportion of their range extends beyond protected areas. The increase in Lion populations in southern Africa was primarily due to the reintroduction of >800 Lions to small, protected reserves in South Africa. Similar reintroductions were undertaken for Leopards (Briers-Louw and Leslie 2017). Fencing of protected areas was proposed as another significant factor contributing to the increase in Lion numbers in southern Africa (Packer et al. 2013). In contrast, fences are far less effective at reducing detrimental edge effects of ‘protected' Leopard populations (Balme et al. 2010a) and a far greater proportion of Leopard range falls outside protected areas (Swanepoel et al. 2013).

One main factor for Leopard declines in Africa is related to prey declines. Leopard population density across Africa is known to track the biomass of their principle prey species, medium and large-sized wild herbivores (Marker and Dickman 2005, Hayward et al. 2007). The latter are increasingly under threat from an unsustainable and increasingly commercialized bushmeat trade, leading to collapses in prey populations across large parts of savanna Africa (Lindsey et al. 2013). Time series data from 1970 to 2005 on the main Leopard prey species in 78 protected areas in West, East and Southern Africa, revealed a 59% average decline in population abundance across the three regions. While ungulate and other large mammal populations increased by 24% in southern Africa, they declined by 52% in East Africa and by 85% in West Africa (Craigie et al. 2010). Considering the Leopard’s dependence on wild prey species within its African range, concomitant Leopard declines in the same order of magnitude (>50%) in West and East Africa can be inferred for the same time frame.

Another main driver of range loss and population decline of Leopards in Africa is habitat loss. Leopards have limited levels of ecological resilience to human-caused habitat fragmentation in Africa, and as a result are more restricted to conservation areas. Although male Leopards can successfully traverse fragmented and suboptimal habitat (Fattebert et al. 2013), in general Leopards in Africa require large contiguous habitats with low human impacts to reproduce successfully (Balme et al. 2010a). However, in 2022, the population of sub-Saharan Africa has grown by 2.5 percent annually, more than three times the global average of 0.8 percent annually with a predicted population increase from 1.152 billion today to 2.094 billion by 2050 (UNDESA 2023), which in conjunction with a 57% increase in agriculture areas (from just over 200 million ha to almost 340 million ha) from 1975 to 2000 and a 21% decrease in natural vegetation in the region (Brink and Eva 2009) likely have negatively impacted the leopard populations. These increases in human population and habitat fragmentation were not accounted for in the previous assessment. As a subspecies P. p. pardus potentially qualifies as Vulnerable due to suspected population declines.

Although African Leopards can be regarded as a single genetic grouping for now (Anco et al. 2017, Pečnerová et al. 2021), geographically they are subject to different pressures that require area-specific categorizations and conservation status assessments. Therefore, we subdivided the African continent into regional units for more detailed and specific status assessments:

North Africa: Leopards have not been documented in North Africa and likely remain extirpated. The Egyptian occurrence is considered very small, with no new documented evidence since the last assessment in Elba National Park in southeastern Egypt, and still no recorded signs in Sinai since 1995 (A. Nagy pers. comm. 2023). Therefore, the North African subpopulation while likely extinct potentially qualifies as Critically Endangered on the basis of a very small and declining number of mature individuals, and a full assessment is recommended.

Sub-Saharan Africa: Numbers of sub-Saharan Leopards are declining within large portions of their range, particularly outside of protected areas. The populations within West, parts of Central and East Africa are decreasing significantly with increasing fragmentation and isolation throughout. In southern Africa, a large continuous population occurs through the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area extending across northern and central Namibia, all of Botswana into northern South Africa. However, large areas of northern Angola, Zambia (outside of protected areas), Mozambique, central Zimbabwe and central South Africa appear to be decreasing from previous estimates with Leopards disappearing from areas with increased human development and areas of intensive conflict with humans (R. Groom, P. Funston, M. Becker, A. Jorge and A. Loveridge pers. comm. 2023). Although urbanization is increasing in sub-Saharan Africa (UNDESA 2023), the majority of the population is rural, and about 60–70% of the population relies on agriculture and livestock for their livelihoods, mostly at a subsistence level. As a result, a large portion of the growing human population is expected to depend directly on expansion of agriculture and livestock grazing to survive. By 2050, the population of sub-Saharan Africa is projected to more than double to >2 billion (UN 2023), and the area of cultivated land is project to increase by 51 million ha (approximately 21%, Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012), which likely will contribute to the continued population decline of Leopards in Africa. In the absence of proactive management, populations of Leopards and other large carnivores generally decline in concert with increased human population growth (Woodroffe 2000, Linnell et al. 2001). In summary, the combination of widespread habitat loss (21% in sub-Saharan Africa in 25 years) and prey loss inside African protected areas (59% decline) is likely to have caused concomitant Leopard declines of >30% over the last three Leopard generations. The Leopard subpopulation of sub-Saharan Africa still qualifies as VU (Criterion A2cd).

Additionally, we strongly recommend detailed status assessments for different parts of Africa to address regional needs and requirements (e.g. Henschel et al. 2011).

ASIA
Indian Leopard (P. p. fusca): The known range of the Indian Leopard has increased compared to the previous assessment, but this is likely due to more intensive surveys conducted in previously unstudied wild and suburban environments. Nevertheless, the data on population size and trend of the Indian Leopard population across its whole range is still poor (Shivakumar et al. 2023). Poaching for wildlife trade is still a threat to Indian Leopards (Datta et al. 2008, Shivakumar et al. 2023). For example, Raza et al. (2012) estimated that four Leopards per week have been poached for illegal wildlife trade over the previous 10 years. Additionally, high conflict is reported in some areas resulting in lethal control of problem individuals (Athreya et al. 2013). Continuous decreases in wild prey are negatively impacting Leopard numbers in some regions (Datta et al. 2008, Selvan et al. 2014), indicating Leopard populations may decline in the future. Moreover, even in well protected areas, the recovery of Tiger numbers often results in lower Leopard numbers (Harihar et al. 2011, Mondal et al. 2012), as Tigers are known to kill and displace Leopards (McDougal 1988, Odden et al. 2010). The first ever scientific national census of Leopards around Tiger habitats in India (except the northeast) in 2014 estimated 7,910 individuals, with a speculated national total of 12,000–14,000 (Bhattacharya 2015). In 2018, 12,852 Leopards were estimated in the Tiger Landscapes of India with likely over 15,000 across India (Jhala et al. 2020, Shivakumar et al. 2023). The 2018 census indicates a population increase from the estimate in 2014 due to more comprehensive sampling (Jhala et al. 2020). The trend in non-Tiger States of India and in non-forested Leopard habitats is however not known and there are also indications for a decreasing population trend (Bhatt et al. 2020). Based on all the information available, the Indian Leopard was assessed as Near Threatened under Criterion A2cd based on a suspected population reduction of 24.5% over the last three generations (Shivakumar et al. 2023). The decline is suspected from range loss and inferred based on actual or potential levels of exploitation. There are, however, also areas with positive population trends (Shivakumar et al. 2023).

Chinese leopard (P. p. orientalis, combined into one subspecies with P. p. japonensis): Even with the two subspecies recently combining to one, according to Kitchener et al. (2017), the last existing populations of Changbai Mountains and Loess Plateau in Central China were separated by 1,700 km of highly converted lands, including almost impassable for leopard 140 km wide break along Liaohe River. From this point of view, it makes sense to describe them separately at the population level.

The state of the most northern Amur population (described previously as Amur leopard, P. p. orientalis) has improved significantly. At the end the 20 century the last 27–32 Amur leopards inhabited Southwest Primorsky province of Russian Far East (Pikunov et al. 2009, Murzin and Miquelle 2000). In nearby Laoyeling Mountains of Northeast China they were maximum 7–12 leopards (Yang et al. 1998, Sun et al. 1999). Due to the strong conservation measures total population was doubled since previous IUCN assessment. In 2014–2015, the joint camera-trap photo database counted the total Sino-Russian population minimum as 64–67 individually defined animals, including 5–8 cubs. The average density was 1.40 sp. per 100 km² on Russian side and 0.16 on Chinese side, while model-averaged SECR estimates predict 84 adults and sub-adults (Vitkalova et al. 2018). Because, they are no exchange of camera trap data since 2016, we can only calculate possible size of the Amur leopard global population, summing the last available results of national surveys. In 2019, they were 49 individually defined adult leopard in North East China (Wen et al. 2022) and 105 adults in Russian Far East (Vitkalova et al. 2023). Adding the country-specific abundance estimates, thus ignoring individual movement across the border, overestimated abundance compared to the combined analyses by 18.0–21.5% (Vitkalova et al. 2018, Shevtsova et al. 2018). So, the Amur leopard global population can be estimated to 128–130 adult and sub-adult leopards (Yu. Darman, pers. comm. 2023). A key conservation achievements were the creation of Land of the Leopard National Park in Russia and North-East Tiger and Leopard National Park in China. The Sino-Russian network of protected areas has been increased 12 times during 25 years, from 1,532 km² to 18,045 km², covering 90% of current range of Amur leopard population. Implementation of SMART law enforcement provided a means of monitoring and improving law enforcement efforts, resulting in a consistent decline in poaching events. An ungulate recovery program, including mineral licks and supplemental winter forage to prevent large-scale winter die-offs, ensured a sufficient and increasing prey base. Even the improvement of protection and increase of prey base, the Amur population face with inbreeding problem, already resulting in physical deformities (Marchenkova et al. 2020, Choi et al. 2021, Vitkalova et al. 2023). The proposed large-scale re-introduction program based on animals from captivity (Miquelle et al. 2010) is delayed. Instead, the re-location of leopards from existing population in Land of the Leopard national park was started in 2023 (Yu. Darman, pers. comm. 2023).

North China leopard population (previously described as P. p. japonensis but subsumed by Kitchener et al. 2017 as P. p. orientalis): This population is restricted to small, isolated protected areas in two separated meta-populations in Central China (Hebei, Shanxi, northern Shaanxi, northern Henan) and South-West China (western Sichuan, southern Qinghai and eastern Tibet regions) (Laguardia et al. 2017, Vitekere et al. 2021, Wang et al. 2021). About 96–98 % of the North Chinese leopard habitat has been lost compared to historical conditions (Xie et al. 2018) and it is listed Chinese National Class I Key Protected Wildlife (Song et al. 2014). The Loess Plateau is the core distribution area of North China leopard with the largest and densest population in the remaining forests of the Ziwuling Mountains in the central part of the region (Yang et al. 2021). In Tieqiaoshan Provincial Nature Reserve (Shanxi province) the recapturing model estimates that the population density of North China leopard in 2017–2019 was high enough—4.23 per 100 km² (Zhu et al. 2021). The microsatellite results of 22 DNA identified leopards in Loess Plateau (Yin et al. 2023) showed significant genetic differentiation of populations on both sides of the Yellow River. Leopards from Tieqiaoshan Provincial Nature Reserve in the Shanxi province (North from Yellow River) showed a significantly lower genetic diversity and a severe inbreeding decline compared to animals from Ziwuling Nature Reserve (Shaanxi Province) and Liupanshan Nature Reserve (Ningxia Province). Yellow River with its wide belt of converted lands is the main cause of the divergence of the original North China leopard populations and they should be set up into two conservation management units, between which there are no direct ecological corridor connection (Yin et al. 2023). Across Central China subpopulations are small (<50 individuals) and fragmented, and occur mainly in isolated nature reserves, indicating some subpopulations may not be viable in the long-term. Reasons for their decline include retaliatory killings due to conflict, poaching for wildlife trade, low prey numbers (especially ungulates), genetic inbreeding, habitat loss and fragmentation (Laguardia et al. 2017, Vitekere et al. 2021, Paijmans et al. 2021).

Indochinese Leopard (classically described as the subspecies P. p. delacouri): The most recent review showed an even greater reduction in range for Leopards in South-east Asia (Rostro-García et al. 2019). This subspecies is now likely extinct in Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia, and Singapore, with strongholds remaining in Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand (Rostro-Garcia pers. comm. 2023). Populations persist in border forests in Thailand and southern China, including both Yunnan in the southwest and southeastern China, resulting in a total estimated population <114-1,130 individuals for all of Southeast Asia (Rostro-Garcia et al. 2019). Targeted poaching for wildlife trade and snaring for bushmeat remain the greatest factor that contributed to the recent range collapse of Leopards in South-east Asia. Leopard parts are used as substitutes for Tiger parts for medicinal purposes in China and South-east Asia, and Leopard skins are highly sought after as luxury items (Rostro-Garcia et al. 2023). Poachers in South-east Asia can get up to $3,000 for a Leopard carcass (S. Prum and R. Maharjan pers. comms. 2014), and this price likely will continue to increase. Other important factors include depletion of prey base, and habitat loss and fragmentation. Throughout all South-east Asian countries and southeastern China, primate and large (>5 kg) ungulate populations are well below carrying capacity due to over hunting by humans, even within protected areas (Johnson et al. 2006, Steinmetz et al. 2010, Kawanishi et al. 2014), which may hinder recovery of Leopards in the region. Habitat loss and fragmentation are serious threats to Leopards in South-east Asia, particularly because these are closely associated with prey depletion and high levels of human disturbance. The deforestation rate in South-east Asia is the highest of all tropical regions, and the rate is still increasing (Sodhi et al. 2010, Miettinen et al. 2011). From 2000 to 2010, areas of primary or secondary forests decreased in all Southeast Asian countries, most of which was due to conversion to palm oil and rubber plantations, as the price of these commodities increased 130% and 333%, respectively, during the same period (Wilcove et al. 2013). Because <10% of South-east Asian forests are under some form of protection, and prices of luxury wood, palm oil, and rubber are expected to increase, habitat loss in the region is expected to continue (Sodhi et al. 2010) and thus likely to have negative impacts on the leopard populations. The Indochinese Leopard (P. p. delacouri) is assessed as Critically Endangered under A2b+3b+4b (Rostro-García et al. 2019).

Persian Leopard (P. p. tulliana): The entire Leopard population in this region is estimated to be around 750–1,044 individuals (Ghoddousi and Khorozyan 2023) with around 83% of which (528–732) in Iran (Farhadinia et al. 2022, Ghoddousi et al. 2022). The largest continuous Leopard hotspot across Asia occurs in Northern Iran and Central Asia which is estimated between 348–440 individuals (Farhardinia et al. 2022). Around 60–80 individuals are estimated to be in the Kopetdag region of Turkmenistan (Farhadinia et al. 2022). The current population of leopards in Kazakhstan varies between 0 and 5 (Red Book of Endangered Species, Kazakhstan 2021). The minimum population identified in the South Caucasus from camera trap images is 6–17 (including 3–9 cubs) in Azerbaijan and 3–9 in Armenia (Khorozyan et al. 2022). In Iraqi Kurdistan, the nine adult individuals are identified (H. Raza, pers. comm. 2023). At the site level, Tandoureh and Golestan national parks in Iran with 30 and 20 adult detected individuals detected from camera traps, respectively, hold the largest populations of Persian Leopards across the entire range (Farhadinia et al. 2022, Hamidi et al. 2014). The western range of Persian leopard lays along Zagros Mountains spanning between Iran, Iraq and Turkey, but often in smaller populations, varying between 1.0-1.9 leopard/100 km² in density (Ghoddousi et al. 2010, Farhadinia et al. 2021). Other protected areas in Iran with the extant population of Persian Leopard identified through camera trapping or DNA fingerprinting include Dena National Park (18 individuals), Salouk National Park (11), Bamu National Park (5–11), Sarigol National (10), Kiasar National Park (10), Bafq Protected Area (5–8), North Alborz Protected Area (7), Parvar Protected Area (7), and Bakhtegan National Park (6) (Farhadinia et al. 2021, 2022; Ghoddousi et al. 2010, 2022 ). The density of Leopards in northeastern Iran was reported to vary between 2.63 and 8.86 individuals/100 km² (Farhadinia et al. 2019, Hamidi et al. 2014). Moreover, 18 individuals (2015–2019) had been identified in unprotected lands in the East of Hormozgan Province, Iran (Ghoddousi et al. 2022) but a follow-up camera trap survey revealed the persistence of only 11 individuals and at least three Leopards killed due to conflict (M. Arianejad pers. comm. 2021). Overall Persian Leopard populations estimates are not available due to four decades of unrest in Afghanistan. Records from retaliatory killing and other random trapping records by impacted communities indicate the presence of a substantial number and a widespread distribution of Leopards in Afghanistan (Ostrowski et al. 2022).

Other subspecies: Leopards of the Arabian Peninsula (P. p. nimr requires listing as Critically Endangered due to low population numbers and population fragmentation. The Arabian Leopard is assessed as Critically Endangered under C2a(i) with only 70–84 mature individuals remaining in two main subpopulations in Oman and Yemen (Al Hikmani et al. 2023). The subpopulations in Oman and Yemen each only contain around 50 mature individuals and are severely fragmented and declining (Al Hikmani et al. 2023). The Sri Lankan Leopard (P. p. kotiya) is assessed as Vulnerable under D1 with a declining population. The Javan Leopard (P. p. melas), is listed as Endangered (but very close to Critically Endangered) under C2a(i) with only 319 mature individuals left, less than 50 mature individuals in each subpopulation and with a continuously declining population (Wibisono et al. 2021).

Note: We acknowledge that additional data could reveal an increase or decrease in population size or range loss of Leopards, thus the status could change for segments of Leopard range as more data are collected.

Habitat Types and Range
Leopards occur in the widest range of habitats among any of the Old-World Cats (Nowell and Jackson 1996). They are found in the desert and semi-desert regions of southern Africa in Namibia and Botswana. There are remnant populations in the arid regions of North Africa in Egypt, as well as the Arabian Peninsula. They persist in rugged montane regions of southwest Asia in Iran, in a varied range of landscapes in India and in the savanna grasslands of East and southern Africa. Leopards live in mountainous environments up to an altitude of 4,600 m on Mt. Kenya and 5,200 m in the Himalayas. They also thrive in the rainforests of West and Central Africa as well as Sri Lanka and southeast Asia. A remnant Leopard subpopulation also persists in the temperate coniferous-broadleaf forests in snowy regions of the Russian Far-East and North-East China. Leopard subpopulations also occur in suburban and urban environments in India and parts of sub-Saharan Africa.

Leopards have survived outside protected areas in many parts of India since historical times (Daniel 1999) and even today high density of Leopards does occur among high human densities (Singh 2005, Athreya et al. 2013), although associated levels of conflict can also be high (Athreya et al. 2011).

Leopards prefer to hunt in areas that provide sufficient cover despite higher prey densities elsewhere when sympatric with larger competitors (Balme et al. 2006).

Diet
Leopard diet is related to prey availability and presence of larger competitors. Generally, Leopards prefer medium-sized ungulate prey (10–40 kgs) where available (Hayward et al. 2006). They have a highly varied diet, however, feeding on insects, reptiles, birds and small mammals up to large ungulates. Though the Leopard as a species has the reputation of being a generalist, often individuals will become adept specialists for a particular prey item. These individuals will feed almost exclusively on that prey, occasionally supplementing their diet with other food items when necessary. Where competitors are present, Leopards will cache their kills under thick vegetation or hoist their prey into the limbs of a tree. Hoisting behaviour is more often recorded where intraguild competitor density is higher. Male Leopards tend to hoist more often than females, particularly in the dry season when available ground cover is scarce (Stein et al. 2015). In the absence of larger competitors, leopards feed on larger prey (Ramakrishnan et al. 1999, Hayward et al. 2006).

In many parts of its range, the importance of domestic animals in their diet is also evident with dogs, goats and cattle forming a large proportion of their diet (Mukherjee et al. 2001) sometimes even dominating the wild prey items in the diet (Athreya et al. 2014, Shehzad et al. 2014). Dogs have been reported as important prey for Leopards (Edgaonkar and Chellam 2002, Athreya et al. 2014). Overall studies on diet of Leopards are very scant across its Asian range. However, a number of dietary studies across the Persian Leopard range show the importance of wild mountain ungulates (80-95% of consumed biomass) such as the Bezoar Goat (Capra aegagrus) and Urial (Ovis vignei; Farhadinia et al. 2018, Ghoddousi et al. 2016 ) as well as the Wild Boar when other prey species are depleted (Ghoddousi et al. 2017).

Home Range Size
Leopard home range size varies with prey availability and habitat structure. Leopards have the largest ranges within arid and semi-arid environs where prey density is low. The largest recorded Leopard ranges include the Central Kalahari (mean = 2,182 km², Bothma et al. 1997). The smallest recorded ranges correspond to rainforest habitats in south and southeast Asia. In Thailand, Grassman (1999) recorded home ranges as small as 8.8 km² for a female and an average 17.7 km² for two adult males. In India, three collared Leopards in human dominated landscapes exhibited home range sizes between 8 and 15 km² (Odden et al. 2014).

The primary threats to Leopards are anthropogenic. Habitat fragmentation, reduced prey base and conflict with livestock and game farming, poaching and illegal trade have reduced Leopard populations throughout most of their range (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Ray et al. 2005, Hunter 2013, Shivakumar et al. 2023, Al Hikmani et al. 2023, Ghoddousi and Khorozyan 2023). The conversion of forest habitats and savanna systems to agriculture, livestock farming and urban sprawl have significantly reduced Leopard range. Though exceptions exist (Athreya et al. 2013), this conversion typically leads to the depletion of natural prey species through poaching, thereby reducing the natural prey base in these areas.

Where livestock and game farms have been created, Leopards may feed on these commercially valuable prey species causing conflicts with farmers. These farmers may be intolerant to Leopard conflict and kill the Leopards for real or perceived threats to their lives and livelihoods (Stein et al. 2010, Athreya et al. 2011). A recent study estimated that 54% of Leopard mortalities in Iran are in response to livestock depredation (Soofi et al. 2022).

Leopards are also targets for trophy hunting. If poorly managed, trophy hunting can be detrimental to the population, especially when permits are focused in one geographic area and targeted individuals are in their prime, territorial, reproductively active (Balme et al. 2010b). Leopard trophy hunting has been reviewed or closed in Namibia, Botswana, and Zambia within the last five years.

In Indo-Malaya and China, Leopards require better protection from illegal trade in skins and bones (Nowell 2007, Shivakumar et al. 2023) and recent reports estimate very high levels of Leopard removal at four individuals per week for 10 years (Raza et al. 2012b). Leopards are also killed for their skins used in traditional ceremonies and other parts for medicinal use in eastern cultures and spiritual beliefs in African cultures. These trades can have a substantial impact on local Leopard populations.

Genetics
We have changed our subspecies listing of Leopards from nine to eight based on morphological traits, molecular and biogeographic information (Miththapala et al. 1996, Uphyrkina et al. 2001, Kitchener et al. 2017). Despite their wide range, Leopards in Africa (P. p. pardus) show little differentiation between populations (Anco et al. 2017, Pečnerová et al. 2021). There is a deep divergence between the African and all Asian Leopard subspecies (dated to 500–600 kya), followed by much more shallow divergence between the Asian lineages (Paaijmans et al. 2021). Within Asia, three main lineages are identified, roughly differentiating the East Asian subspecies P. p. orientalis, P. p. delacouri and P. p. melas, the Central Asian subspecies P. p. fusca and P. p. kotiya, and the West Asian subspecies P. p. tulliana (the subspecies P. p. nimr was not included in this study; Paijmans et al. 2021). Although the samples from individual subspecies seem to group together, with the exception of an unresolved relationship between P. p. fusca and P. p. kotiya, detailed inferences are challenging due to the low numbers of sampling localities in this study (Paijmans et al. 2021). Recent trends have shown a substantial reduction in Leopard range throughout West and Central Africa, South-east Asia and China; thus, we express concern about the loss of leopard diversity through local extinction of unique genetic lineages. These lineages may carry adaptations to local environments, which are crucial to conserve for maintaining resilient populations. The loss of potentially adaptive diversity is particularly concerning in the face of rapidly changing climate and further isolation of populations. In addition, small and isolated population may face the threat of inbreeding depression. For the Amur population leopard there have been cases of physical deformities due to low genetic viability (Marchenkova et al. 2020, Vitkalova et al. 2023). Monitoring populations specifically to detect decreasing fitness, e.g. through low fecundity or high cub mortality, may further provide indications of inbreeding depression.

Leopards are targeted for trophy hunting and are illegally hunted for wildlife trade for their skins (used in traditional ceremonies), and bones and other parts (used for medicinal purposes in eastern cultures and for spiritual and cultural beliefs in West and Central Africa.

The Leopard is included in CITES Appendix I. Trade of Leopard skins and derivative products is restricted to 2,648 individuals in 12 countries (with Kenya and Malawi abstaining from using from hunting leopard) in sub-Saharan Africa. Recently, the practices within the hunting industry have been called into question by wildlife researchers and conservationists (Packer et al. 2011). In 2010, the government of Namibia conducted an assessment of trophy hunting in response to calls for an increase in permits amid reports of unethical hunting practices. Zambia placed a moratorium on Leopard and Lion hunting in 2013 due to concerns about the conservation status of the populations. In South Africa, Mozambique and Botswana, researchers have developed regional studies of the hunting quota systems that incorporate measures of trophy quality and regulate the distribution of permits. These quota studies integrate previous hunting data to prescribe the number and distribution of hunting permits with local stakeholder participation. In Botswana, a moratorium on Leopard hunting was implemented from 2014 to 2022 when a quota was released (DWNP 2021). South Africa suspended trophy hunting of Leopards for the year in 2016.

Regulating trophy hunting will only address a percentage of Leopard mortality; human-Leopard conflict within livestock and game farming communities is likely the greatest source, particularly in southern Africa. In many countries of southern and East Africa, farmers are allowed to kill predators that are considered a threat to life and property with permits distributed retroactively. It is likely that a high percentage of Leopards are killed without reporting and therefore the exact numbers of Leopards killed through actual or perceived conflict is unknown. Generally, efforts to calculate mortality through human-wildlife conflict have been considered unreliable. Since the majority of Leopard range is outside of protected areas, conflict mitigation strategies such as livestock husbandry, compensation/ insurance programmes, alterations in trophy hunting permit distribution and public awareness have all been used to assist farmers and increasing tolerance for living with leopards (Balme et al. 2009b, Stein et al. 2010). Where conflict Leopards have been identified, translocation has been tried often with negative results (Weilenmann et al. 2010, Athreya et al. 2011), however, effective translocation criteria have been developed based on suitable release site characteristics (Weise et al. 2015). Namibia and Botswana have promoted wildlife conservation through the devolution of wildlife management and the establishment of benefit sharing initiatives between photographic tour operators, professional hunters and communities through Conservancies and Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs; Jones 1993). These initiatives were modelled after previous efforts such as CAMPFIRE in Zimbabwe.

In North and West Africa, the Middle East and large parts of Asia, Leopards are largely restricted to protected areas where they are afforded refuge if poaching is not significant. However, many of these protected areas are not large enough to maintain genetically viable populations and will likely require intensive management. As positive example, the creation of large national parks on the Sino-Russian border played crucial role in restoration of Amur leopard population (Vitkalova et al. 2023). In Indo-Malayasia and China, Leopards require increased protection from illegal trade in skins and bones (Nowell 2007).

Since the previous status update, researchers have undertaken population surveys within protected areas throughout Leopard range. These surveys have improved our understanding of Leopard status with greater resolution and in some cases generated population estimates. We recommend increased population surveys for Leopards, in particular across Central Africa, Angola, South-east Asia and South-west China.

To address the use of Leopard skins for traditional ceremonies, conservationists in South Africa have partnered with textile companies and communities to provide faux-fur alternatives (Naude et al. 2020).

International collaborative efforts to facilitate cross- boundary protections and potential connectivity have been underway developing among researchers and country leadership for the Persian Leopard (Bleyhl et al. 2022). Currently, only around 11% of the core habitat patches of the Persian Leopard fall within protected areas across its entire range (Bleyhl et al. 2022). The collaboration between Russia and China creates possibility to launch in 2024 the Sino-Russian transboundary nature reserve, covering 90% of Amur leopard current range (Y. Darman, pers. comm. 2024). Leopard population recovery efforts are currently underway with reintroduction projects in the Greater Caucasus (Rozhnov et al. 2022), the Russian Far East (Y. Darman, pers. comm. 2023) and Africa (McManus et al. 2022, Power et al. 2021). Researchers are exploring efforts to reintroduce the Arabian Leopard from local captive facilities (Budd and Leus 2013).