This taxon belongs to the vampyrus species group, but was previously included as Pteropus vampyrus (Linnaeus 1758) (Kloss and Andersen 1916, Lekagul and McNeely 1977, Nowak and Walker 1999), P. giganteus (Brünnich 1782), and P. intermedius Andersen, 1908 (Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1951, Corbet and Hill 1992).

The Indian Flying Fox (Pteropus medius) is assessed as Near Threatened due to a suspected past and projected future population reduction of 25–29% over three (3) generations (2012 to 2037; generation length = 11.7 years; Pacifici et al. 2013) approaching criterion A4acd. The significant reduction in the species’ population is due to past, ongoing, and increasing persecution stemming from the species' tendency to feed on orchards, in addition to the widespread hunting for bushmeat and traditional medicine. Direct mortality also comes from electrocution across much of the species’ range. Further, the species' habitat is significantly reduced and degraded as roost sites have been lost to urbanization and expansion of agricultural areas. The threats are continuing and are likely to worsen, especially those associated with extreme heat events from climate change, hunting, and persecution due to human-bat conflicts.

The Indian Flying Fox is an Old-World fruit bat species with a broad geographic distribution across South Asia and extending to the eastern edge of Myanmar (McEvoy et al. 2021). This species thrives in diverse habitats from coastal lowlands to the Himalayan mountainous range across countries including Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Nepal and Bangladesh, and has a limited presence near the Indian border in Bhutan (Molur et al. 2002). A historic occurrence in China is highly improbable and not considered further in this assessment.

The majority of the species’ distribution is found in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. In India, the species is known from almost all the states and are particularly common in the southern and eastern states such as Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha. They are also found in the western states of Maharashtra and Gujarat, as well as in the northeastern states of Assam and West Bengal (Dookia and Tak 2004, Dey et al. 2013, Kumar et al. 2016). In Pakistan, it has undergone a significant range expansion into the northern low-lying regions nestled within Pakistan's mountainous terrain attributed to climate change and increased temperatures. It is now mostly present in the central and northern regions of country, including in the provinces of Punjab, Sindh and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and their distribution follows the broader Indus River and surrounding tributaries region (Mahmood-ul-Hassan et al. 2009, Gulraiz et al. 2015, Salim 2018). The distribution of Indian Flying Foxes has been recorded at an elevation of 1,420 m in Lower Dir, KPK, Pakistan (Khan et al. 2020).

The species has a wide distribution across nearly all divisions of Bangladesh, including Barisal, Dhaka, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Rangpur, and Sylhet. Its range extends from Saint Martin's Island to various forest types such as deciduous, mixed-evergreen, tropical broadleaf, and mangrove forests, with the latter being the largest mangrove forest in the world (Ul Hasan and Kingston 2022). In Sri Lanka, they are found throughout the island, with the highest densities in the lowland rainforests of the southwestern and southern regions (Kryštufek 2009). The Indian Flying Fox is found in the Terai region and some parts of the western and central regions of Nepal (Neupane et al. 2016, Manandhar et al. 2018). The presence of the Indian Flying Fox in Bhutan is currently unconfirmed and are in want of substantial evidence, but the migration of this species to Bhutan is highly likely during the lean period. In the Maldives, this species is distributed in Addu Atol, north and south Male, Mulaku, and Dhidhoofinolhu Island (Accharya et al. 2012, Aul et al. 2014). In Myanmar the Indian flying foxes are found mainly in the western, eastern and southern regions of the country, particularly in the states of Rakhine, Chin, Bago, Pegu and Toungoo and Shan (Molur et al. 2002).

The range expansion in Pakistan has led to a significant increase in the global distribution of the Indian Flying Fox, and the number of locations where these bats are found. Despite this broader distribution, the elevation ranges from sea level to 1,300 m asl (Thapa et al. 2023).

Although information on the species’ population size and trend is limited, there is a suspected past, ongoing, and projected future decline of 25–29% over three (3) generations (2012 to 2037; generation length = 11.7 years; Pacifici et al. 2013). The decline is due to past and continuing habitat loss, hunting, electrocution, and increasing frequency of extreme weather events that can severely impact colonies over broad areas. The population in lowland areas of Nepal have experienced up to a 90% decline (Neupane et al. 2016, Katuwal et al. 2019). Myanmar and southern parts of Pakistan (Mahmood-ul-Hassan et al. 2009) and northeastern parts of India (Ali 2010) has also reported significant decline. Insights into specific subpopulations is limited, but given the species’ vast range, it is suspected that there are regional subpopulations established through migratory routes. There are no data to suggest extreme fluctuations in the species population or number of mature individuals (McEvoy et al. 2021, Murugavel et al. 2023).

The species is found in a variety of habitats, including forests, mangroves, and agricultural areas, and it is considered to be adaptable to a wide range of environments such as megacities, close to agricultural lands, near rivers and water bodies, and wildlife sanctuaries (Aul et al. 2014, Chavan and Deshbhratar 2019, Mishra et al. 2020). Overall, the roost habitat of Indian Flying Foxes is declining due to human activities and environmental factors. Conservation efforts to protect and restore their habitat are crucial to help stabilize or increase their population numbers.

They roost in the open on tree branches in large numbers. Most of their roosts are permanent roosts but occasionally they are known to use temporary roosts for few days (McEvoy et al. 2021, Murugavel et al. 2023). Their roosts are often near waterbodies such as ponds (Hahn et al. 2014). In India, they roost in a range of tree species including but not restricted to Anacadrium occidentale, Albizia lebbek, Azadirachta indica, Bambusa arundinacea, Bassia latifolia, Borassus flabellifer, Cocus nucifera, Ceiba speciosa, Dellonix regia (Eucalyptus globulus, Ficus benghalensis, Ficus religiosa, Ficus microcorpa, Lannea coromandelica, Madhuca longifolia, Polyalthia longifolia, Pongamia pinnata, Syzygium cumini, Tamarindus indica, and Terminalia arjuna (Pandian and Suresh 2021). In Pakistan they roost in Broussonetia papyrifera, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Grevillea robusta, Hevea brasiliensis, Morus nigra, Morus alba, Melia azedarach, Populus nigra, Platanus orientalis, and Pinus raxburghii (Mahmood-Ul-Hassan et al. 2010, Khan et al. 2020). In Nepal they prefer Bombax ceiba, Celtis australis, Dendrocalamus strictus, Populus ciliata, Pinus roxburghii, Grevillea robusta, Eucalyptus spp., Lindera spp., Persea spp., and other species (Neupane et al. 2016, Manandhar et al. 2018). In Sri Lanka they roost in Terminalia arjuna, Hevea brasiliensis, Pterocarpus marsupium, and Bambusa vulgaris. In Bangladesh, this species has been recorded from eucalyptus, bamboo, acacia (Albizia spp.), and Shorea robusta (Hahn et al. 2014).

The species is primarily frugivorous and nectarivorous, but occasionally feeds on leaves (Krishnarathi and Isaac 2016). It forages and visits sites in urban cities, natural vegetation, and plantations. Diet includes both wild and commercial fruits and flowers, including flowers from families such as Anacardiaceae, Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Betulaceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodeaceae, Fagaceae, Liliaceae, Malvaceae, Myrtaceae, Oleaceae, Pinaceae, Poaceae, Proteaceae, Rhamnaceae (Tiwari et al. 2019) and fruits from families Arecaceae, Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae, Bombacaceae, Caricaceae, Combertaceae, Curcurbitaceae, Fabaceae, Moraceae, Myrtaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rubiaceae, Sapotaceae, Solanaceae, and Meliacease (Ashwin and Jayakumar 2019). Major fruits consumed include but not restricted to Mangifera indica, Ficus racemosa, Syzygium jambos, Psidium guajava, Tamarindus indica (Aung and Htay 2019). They feed on flowers including Bombax ceiba, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Grevillea robusta, Mangifera indica, Pinus roxburghii, and other species (Tiwari et al. 2019). They are also known to feed on the leaves of Albizzia lebbek, Cocus nucifera, Ficus virens, and Tamarindus indica (Aung and Htay 2019). They play an important role in seed dispersal and pollination, making them associated with key ecosystem services.

The species’ breeding typically occurs between September and November, with mostly single young born between February and April. Recent observations have indicated that the species may have two mating seasons, one in winter and the other in summer. The first mating season was observed between December and January, while the second occurred during June and July (Mathur et al. 2011, Noureen et al. 2014). The species is known to have a lifespan of up to 15 years in the wild and 31 years in captivity (Nowak and Walker 1999).

Indian Flying Foxes are known to travel long distances in search of suitable roosting sites, and they often return to the same trees year after year (McEvoy et al. 2021, Murugavel et al. 2023). This species exhibits a central-place foraging pattern, and bats can travel from 4 to 40 km per night and usually return to the roost every night after foraging (Murugavel et al. 2023). However, some individuals are known to take multi-night trips before returning to the communal roost (McEvoy et al. 2021).

The roosting numbers of these fruit bats also exhibit high seasonal fluctuation, as they respond to extreme temperatures by moving to northern areas during the summer to avoid the intense heat. Extreme heat events have led to the deaths of Indian Flying Foxes in many parts of their geographic range (Dey et al. 2015, Ahmed et al 2019, Roy et al. 2020). Climate change-induced extreme heat events have caused the realised niche of this species to shrink continuously, resulting in the population's distribution expanding from the hot southern regions to include the milder central and northern regions of Pakistan (Mahmood-ul-Hassan et al. 2009). This shift is likely an adaptive response to avoid rising temperatures and extreme heat events.

One of the greatest threats to the Indian Flying Foxes is habitat loss and fragmentation. As human populations grow and expand, more and more of the bats' natural habitat is being converted for agriculture, urbanisation, and other human activities. This loss of habitat removes roost sites and can limit the bats' access to food and roosting sites, as well as isolate populations from one another, making it difficult for them to breed and maintain genetic diversity (Frick et al. 2020).

Another major threat to Indian Flying Foxes is hunting and persecution by humans. These bats are often viewed as pests, as they can cause damage to crop and fruit orchards. As a result, they are often killed or subjected to other forms of persecution by humans, including capture and culling. In addition, there is a significant demand for Indian Flying Foxes in the traditional medicine and bushmeat trades, which puts additional pressure on their populations (Mildenstein et al. 2016, Frick et al. 2020, Murugan et al. 2020).

Further, extreme heat events are increasing in frequency and magnitude due to climate change and pose a significant threat that has led to the deaths of Indian flying foxes in many parts of their geographic range (Dey et al. 2015). These climate connected events are also causing weather patterns to become more unpredictable. As a result, Indian Flying Foxes are facing significant challenges in adapting to their changing environment (Dey et al. 2015, Roy et al. 2020).

Finally, Indian Flying Foxes are also known to be at risk of electrocution throughout their entire geographic range due to exposed high-voltage power lines such as in India (Rajasthan and Andaman Island) (Islands 2013, Chouhan and Shrivastava 2019), south and southwestern Sri Lanka (Tella et al. 2020). The primary cause of electrocution comes from their roosting habits as they often roost in large colonies in tall trees, and when departing a roost, they can accidentally collide with power lines or other electrical equipment, resulting in injury or death (Tella et al. 2020, Murugavel et al. 2023).

While the extent of hunting of Indian Flying Foxes is unclear, there is no evidence of international trade. It appears that the species is occasionally hunted at their foraging and roosting sites by tribal communities for local consumption and trade throughout its distributional range. However, there are reports of frequent consumption of bushmeat from Idukki District, Kerala, in southern India (Murugan et al. 2020) and by some tribal groups in Bangladesh and Nepal (Mickleburgh et al. 2009, Acharya et al. 2012, Openshaw et al. 2017). It is also hunted for use as a traditional medicinal cure for asthma, paralysis, fever, and pain. While hair and bodily fluids are most often used in traditional medicine (Tackett et al. 2022).

Conservation actions such as law enforcement, public education, and awareness programs may help to mitigate these threats and conserve Indian Flying Foxes’ populations (Ahmed et al. 2023). The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) lists Indian Flying Fox under Appendix II (CITES 2023), which means that international trade of this species is regulated and monitored by the government of the countries where it is found (Hemley 1994).

Species-specific conservation efforts for the Indian flying fox are limited, though the species is found in a number of protected areas throughout its range including the Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu, Palamau Tiger Reserve, and Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary in Jharkhand, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh, Molem National Park in Goa, Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Chilka (Nalaban) Wildlife Sanctuary in Orissa, and Indravati National Park in Chattisgarh in India (Molur et al. 2002). This is also a species that is known to be conserved using spiritual practices in India. Often referred as the Sacred flying fox of India, many local communities associate the roosting trees and the bats with a deity and conserve them (Marimuthu 1988, Tangavelou et al. 2013, Balamurugan et al. 2021, Murugavel 2023). In Pakistan, these bats inhabit the Changa Manga, a protected area once known as the world's largest man-made forest. Unfortunately, this region has recently experienced extensive illegal deforestation, threatening its biodiversity.

The Indian Flying Fox is one of the most persecuted bat species due to its perceived threat to fruit crops (Singaravelan et al. 2009, Attaullah et al. 2022). This species is classified as "Vermin" under Schedule V of the Wildlife Protection Acts of both Pakistan and India, enacted in 1972. Such a classification effectively removes any legal protection for the species, labelling them as "pests" and thereby encouraging measures aimed at their eradication. However, there has been a notable change in India where, through the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2022, the species' status was elevated to Schedule II. This upgrade signifies a substantial move towards the conservation of this species within Indian borders. This is also a species that is known to be conserved using spiritual practices in India. Often referred as the 'sacred flying fox of India', many local communities associate the roosting trees and the bats with a deity and conserve them (Marimuthu 1988, Tangavelou et al. 2013).

While these bats can be found in protected areas such as national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, more conservation actions are necessary to safeguard their habitat especially in urban areas where they are largely distributed. Despite conservation practices and efforts in the wildlife sanctuaries and rural habitats, these bats face constant conflict with humans in urban habitats. Protecting and managing the natural habitats of the species is crucial, which involves preserving forests and other natural surroundings that serve as sources of food and roosting sites. Promoting community level conservation efforts are also essential to encourage local practices of bat conservation and for long-term protection of the species. Moreover, safeguarding mangroves and other coastal habitats is also vital, as these areas provide significant feeding and roosting sites for Indian Flying Foxes.

Law enforcement and reduction of hunting can be achieved through law enforcement and public education and awareness programs. These programs can help create public awareness of zoonoses risk associated with Indian Flying Fox meat and traditional medicine, and also educate local communities about the importance of the species for sustainable ecosystem (Voigt and Kingston 2016).

The frequency and duration of extreme temperatures caused by climate change are predicted to escalate by the end of the 21st century. Failure to take prompt action to combat this imminent climate change may lead to conservation challenge with disastrous ramifications for the survival of Indian Flying Foxes (Welbergen et al. 2008).

To minimize the danger of electrocution for Indian Flying Foxes, numerous preservation measures can be implemented. One of the most efficient approaches is to equip power lines and other electrical devices with bat flight diverters or similar devices that make it harder for the animals to touch the equipment. It is crucial to base the design and deployment of power line bat diverters on the bats' vision rather than human vision (Martin 2022).

Monitoring and research on the population trends and habitat use of Indian Flying Foxes can provide important information for conservation efforts. This will help to understand their distribution, population trends, and habitat needs, allowing conservation efforts to be targeted more effectively. Involving local communities in conservation efforts can be a powerful tool for protecting Indian Flying Foxes. Community-based conservation initiatives can help to build local support for conservation efforts and can also provide an opportunity for local people to benefit from conservation activities (Voigt and Kingston 2016, Ahmed et al. 2023).