The Norwegian, Swedish and Russian Muskox were originally from eastern Greenland which has been considered O. moschatus wardi. However, the question of subspecies is uncertain and in the absence of updated taxonomic studies with more recent techniques, this assessment reflects the Tener’s (1963) conclusions. Tener (1963) used morphological skull measurements and examination of pelage and body size characteristics to conclude the sub-speciation was incipient and thus there was no basis to recognize the subspecies Ovibos moschatus moschatus and O. m. wardi. A study of mtDNA also did not support the two subspecies (Groves 1997).

European regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)
EU 27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

The species is listed as Not Applicable for the European regional assessment because it has been introduced in Norway and Sweden, and the reintroduced population in European Russia is less than 1% of the global population.

In Europe, Muskox occurs in the Dovrefjell-Sunndalsfjella National Park (Norway), Härjedalen (Sweden), and in the Polar Urals (Russia). The Russian site lies just inside the boundaries of geographical Europe as defined by the European Red List. The European occurrences are the result of introductions as Muskox disappeared from Europe and Asia during climate changes at the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary (Markova et al. 2015). Pleistocene fossil Muskox were found in Norway (Dovre), Sweden and Denmark (Bennike et al. 2014) and the Norwegian fossils were dated at 41–35 cal kyr B.P. (Hufthammer et al. 2019).

Globally, Muskox occur naturally in the northeast and northern Greenland and in Canada on the mainland and arctic islands. Muskox were successfully reintroduced in 1935 to Alaska (Lent 1999) and to Russia in 1974 to the Taimyr Peninsula and subsequently to ten other Russian sites along the north coast including the Polar Urals, Yamal (Sipko 2009). However, other and earlier introductions to Iceland, Svalbard and Norway were unsuccessful (Schmidt and Stelvig 2022).

In Norway, Muskox numbers in 2018 were 300 after a relatively slow rate of increase due to mortalities rather than low productivity (Asbjørnsen et al. 2005, Rangbru and Seljevoll 2017). Annual variations in fall temperature and late winter snowfall contribute to variability in the population trends (Asbjørnsen et al. 2005). The current trend is increasing to stable. Numbers in Sweden were 10 in 2017 which is a decline since the 1970s when numbers had reached 34 Muskox by 1981 after 5 Muskox crossed from Norway in 1971. Muskox numbers were 300 in Russia’s Polar Urals and increasing in 2017 (Cuyler et al. 2019).

Globally, the three-generation global trend is an 8% decrease from approximately 157,100 Muskox estimated in 1998 to 127,100 by 2019.

In Norway, Muskox occupy low to high alpine zones with grasses and prostrate willow shrubs (Michelsen et al. 2011). Dovrefjell has a more temperate than arctic climate with warmer summers and winters and the climate is dry (Michelsen et al. 2011). The Muskox share the area with Wild Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus ssp. tarandus), Red Deer (Cervus elaphus ssp. atlanticus) and Moose (Alces alces) and unusually for Muskox ecology, with Domestic Sheep (Ovis aries). Predators are not mentioned (Rangbru and Seljevoll 2017).

Globally, Muskox are found on the tundra, which extends from the limits of plant growth on the High Arctic Islands and northern Greenland to the continental mainland where in Canada, Muskox are found south to within the tree line zone where the boreal forest meets the tundra. Muskox ecology is dominated by a short and variable plant growing season (when diet quality is high) and a long winter when the availability of low-quality forage is highly variable through snow cover (Barboza and Reynolds 2004). Although primarily grazers adapted to a diet of sedges and grasses, Muskox also browse shrubs and forage selectively for forbs. Muskox live in mixed-sex and age herds or small male bachelor herds and typically seasonally move within home ranges (Gunn and Adamczewski 2003). Muskox predators include Grey Wolves Canis lupus, Brown Bears Ursus arctos and rarely, Polar Bears Ursus maritimus (Tener 1965).

In Norway, annual mortality is high as trains annually kill between 4 – 19 Muskox (2004-2016) and park authorities annually kill up to 40 (15%) of the Muskox if the Muskox stray outside a designated area (Rangbru and Seljevoll 2017). This is because of a concern for wild Reindeer which are inadvertently disturbed by tourism attracted to the Muskox (Rangbru and Seljevoll 2017). Other threats are disease possibly accentuated by warmer weather and as the number of Muskox is low, bad luck such as a lightning strike. Diseases are an ongoing threat such as outbreaks of pneumonia during exceptionally warm weather (Ytrehus et al. 2008, 2015; Handeland et al. 2014) as well as outbreaks of contagious ecthyma (Vikøren et al. 2008, 2012) and ocular disease (Handeland et al. 2020). Parasite spillover from domestic sheep may have already occurred (Davidson et al. 2014). Novel diseases are a potential threat as Muskox have low genetic variability (Prewer et al. 2019) although the implications of low genetic variability for immune function are complex (Sommers 2005) and not yet described for Muskox. Lack of genetic variation due to inbreeding is likely for the Swedish Muskox which had five founders and numbers remained low (Laikre et al. 1996).

Globally, the Arctic is rapidly warming, but understanding Muskox sensitivity to a warmer climate is only just beginning. Warmer autumns with rain and icing or deeper snow are a concern as Muskox depend on fall foraging to build body reserves for the winter (Tomassini et al. 2019). A warmer climate is also changing Muskox exposure to diseases and parasites, as the parasites and disease vectors are also responding to a warmer climate (Kafle et al. 2020). Habitat changes in the Arctic are relatively small scale and local habitat alterations due to roads, mines and oil and gas explorations and developments. In North America and Greenland, local communities have a voice in monitoring and mitigation of the effects of industrial developments.

In Norway’s Dovrefjell-Sunndalsfjella National Park and in Sweden, Muskox are a tourist attraction (Dybsand and Fredman 2021).

Globally, Muskox hunting has been part of Aboriginal culture for thousands of years and is still important to Inuit communities for meat and hides; the horns are valued for local handicrafts and a luxury market exists for qivuit, the remarkably fine underwool (Lent 1999, Cuyler et al. 2019). Muskox hunting is typically regulated through quotas in Alaska, Canada and Greenland and licensed sport- hunting contributes to community economies.

In Norway, the management plan’s goal is to prevent tourist traffic attracted to the Muskox from disturbing the Park’s other wildlife, especially wild reindeer and to minimize conflict between Muskox and humans. Consequently, Muskox are restricted to a 340 km² area of the Dovrefjell-Sunndalsfjella National Park and Muskox moving outside the area are euthanized (Rangbru and Seljevoll 2017). Disturbance from tourism is being reduced by the use of guides in Norway (Dybsand Fredman 2021) and in Sweden, encouraging tourists to visit Muskox held in a breeding centre in Härjedalen (https://myskoxcentrum.se/about-the-muskox/). A conservation plan for the few Muskox in Sweden was not approved because the Muskox were not listed as a native species on the Swedish Red List (Gärdenfors 2010).

Globally, re-introductions have reduced Muskox global vulnerabilities, as Muskox are now distributed on a circum-arctic scale. However, the recovery of Muskox and re-occupation of their former distribution to areas not occupied in living memory of local communities causes local concerns, especially for whether Muskox negatively affects caribou abundance. Currently, scientific investigations have not found evidence that Muskox impact caribou abundance (Brodeur et al. 2023). The communities are through co-management bodies involved in monitoring and regulating Muskox hunting (Cuyler et al. 2019). Muskox habitat is mostly intact and Muskox habitat in national parks is protected as land use activities are controlled, while aboriginal hunting is permitted subject to conservation provisions.