This is a heavily exploited species in the Mediterranean Sea, and is a top predator which is not likely to recover quickly. Fishing effort on this species apparently increased steadily through the 1980s and 1990s when peak landings were recorded. There has been a steady decline in landings from a peak of 7000 t in 1990 to 1000 t in 2005, with no reason to suspect that effort has declined. It is estimated that the population in the Mediterranean Sea has declined at least 30% over the past 25 years (3 generation length), and fishing effort is not expected to decrease in the near future. Therefore this species is listed as Vulnerable.

In the east Atlantic, this species is present from the British Isles to Cape Blanc, Mauritania, and from southwestern France to western Sahara including Senegal and around the Canary Islands and Madeira. It is present throughout the Mediterranean Sea, though more common in the south, the western Black Sea, and the Balearic Islands.

There is significant decline in Turkey (Fricke et al. 2007). Recovery time in marine protected areas is slow, around 10 years (P. Francour pers. comm. 2007).

According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Fisheries Statistics (2007), this species reached a peak in exploitation levels from 1984-1995 at around 3,000 t to nearly 7,000 t (1990). In 1996 landing data reduced to around 2,200 t and it has steadily decreased to less than 1,000 t over the 5 years to 2005. There is considerable question about the accuracy of these data. However, the overall trend from data collected from around 12 countries appears to be an increase in effort peaking in the 1980s and 1990s. There is no reason to assume that effort has declined in recent years and therefore the catch trend over the last 20-25 years that shows approximately 30% decline overall, is probably a good estimate of population trends.

This species is littoral and benthopelagic, it lives on rocky bottoms and Posidonia beds until 150 m, but mainly between 15-50 m (Fischer et al. 1987). It is common at depths of 60 m, but is also found down to 100 m (Morales-Nin and Moranta 1997). It's a gonochoric species with spawning taking place between the end of March and May. Males and females older than one year mature almost simultaneously. Sexually mature females were detected at the minimum standard length of 21cm (Loir et al. 2001). It feeds on fishes and cephalopods. This species has a longevity of 33 years (Chemmam-Abdelkader et al. 2004). Its maximum length is 100 cm (Fischer et al. 1987).

This species has a longevity of approximately 30 years, and can mature as both a male and female at 1 year of age (Loir et al. 2001). Generation length is therefore estimated to be about 13 years.

It is an important food fish and the fishery is semi-industrial and artisanal. It is caught with beach seines, trawl nets, gill nets, trammel nets, bottom long-lines, and lines. It is regularly present in the markets of Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, Tunisia, Morocco, but is occasionally in France and rarely in Israel. Landings of this species in the Mediterranean Sea reached 868 tons in 2003.
Some attempts to culture this species have been successful. Nevertheless, for large-scale culture to become profitable, several very important issues still have to be solved. It will be necessary to reduce the high mortality rates during larval and postlarval stages and improve the low survival rates due to pathological processes, malformations, etc.

Fisheries and eutrophication are listed as threats in Turkey (Fricke et al. 2007).

Spear fishing is still a major threat for this species (P. Francour pers. comm. 2007).

Demand for this species increased dramatically in Turkey in the 1980s and 1990s due to increase in coastal resorts and restaurants (C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007).

It is an important food fish and the fishery is semi-industrial and artisanal. It is regularly present in the markets of Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, Tunisia, Morocco, but is occasionally in France and rarely in Israel. It is sold fresh or frozen (Fischer et al. 1987). Landings of this species in the Mediterranean Sea reached 868 tons in 2003.
Some attempts to culture this species have been successful. Nevertheless, for large-scale culture to become profitable, several very important issues still have to be solved.

Spear fishing is still a major threat for this species (P. Francour pers. comm. 2007).

Demand for this species increased dramatically in Turkey in the 1980s and 1990s due to increase in coastal resorts and restaurants (C. Bizsel pers. comm. 2007).

This species occurs in marine protected areas. It is recommended to restrict spear fishing and to establish minimum sizes in catches (A. Di Natale pers. comm. 2007) and to enforce minimum size catch in areas where it is already established (e.g., 20 cm in Turkey) (Bizsel pers. comm. 2007). More genetic information would be useful for the management of this species.