This species was originally differentiated as a new form by Dr John A. Endler. In 1975 during his field activities in Venezuela and the Island of Trinidad, in order to study different aspects of natural selection in Poecilia reticulata (see Endler 1978, 1980, 1983 among others), Endler made collections of this new form in the Laguna de Los Patos, adjacent to the city of Cumaná, Sucre State, Venezuela. These preserved and living specimens were brought to the United States and delivered to Dr Donn E. Rosen (AMNH) for study and description, as well as to Dr. Klaus Kallman for reproduction. The species was not described by Dr. Rosen, due to his death, but Dr. Kallman took it upon himself to distribute them to numerous ornamental fish breeders in different parts of the world, and the undescribed species began to be marketed and known as Endler's Livebearer or Endler's Guppy since the 1970s (Endler 2011).

The species was described as Poecilia wingei by Poeser, Kempkes & Isbrücker (2005), with specimens captured in 2002, in the hydrographic system of the Campoma and Buena Vista lagoons, (Sucre state, Venezuela), as well as other small coastal rivers close by.

Poecilia wingei is currently a valid species, considered a sister species to P. reticulata (Morris et al. 2018). Since its description, this species has not undergone nomenclatural modifications or generic relocations.

However, it is important to know that Herdeguen et al. (2014) do not consider Poecilia wingei as a valid or separate species of Poecilia reticulata, since they did not find sufficient genetic evidence that can separate or differentiate these two species. Other authors (Alexander and Breden 2004, Alexander et al. 2006, Ward et al. 2008, Tripathi et al. 2009a, b, Watson et al. 2010) do not consider P. wingei as a valid species, although they accept Poecilia reticulata populations from the north-eastern region of Venezuela, present in the aquatic ecosystems adjacent and close to the city of Cumaná and those of the Río Campoma basin (called by them Cumaná Guppy), as a case of incipient speciation (Alexander and Breden 2004, Herdeguen et al. 2014). According to Huber (2019), P. wingei is a typical “molecular species”, not diagnosable by some pattern or combination of external characters.

Poecilia wingei is native to north-eastern Venezuela. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated at 1,581-4,785 km². There are three locations based on the primary threat of habitat modification and this is leading to a continuing decline in habitat extent and quality. There is also an inferred continuing decline in the population size based on the threat of invasive alien species. Therefore, this species is assessed as Endangered.

Poecilia wingei was described for several coastal rivers in the north of Venezuela, in the hydrographic system of the Campoma and Buena Vista lagoons, called by some authors the Río Campoma (e.g. Carvajal 1972) and by others Río Casanay (e.g. Salazar and Arcia-Barreto 2020) that belong to the hydrographic basin of the Caribbean Sea in Venezuela (Rodríguez-Olarte et al. 2009). Additionally, it has also been recorded from other coastal drainages adjacent to the mentioned hydrographic system as we describe in this section.

According to the description of the species (Poeser et al. 2005), the holotype (ZMA 123.704, male) comes from the Río Campoma, between the Campoma and Buena Vista lagoons. We locate this point at 10º32'23''N, 64º 31'54''W, at 7 m asl. The allotype (ZMA 123,705, female) and a batch of paratypes (ZMA 123,636, 18 specimens), were captured in the same locality as holotype in 2002. Five other localities (which we locate in this evaluation) of five batches of paratypes (ZMA 123,637, 67 specimens; ZMA 123,638, 25 specimens; ZMA 123,645, 7 specimens; ZMA 123,647, 38 specimens; and ZMA 123,648, 10 specimens), corresponding to a total of 147 specimens, were captured respectively in: 1) irrigation, 2 and 3 km north of the town of Cariaco (10º31'40''N, 64º32'37''W, 9 m asl), 2) small ditches, parallel to the road, 2.5 km west of the town of Carupano (10º39'42''N, 63º 17'08''W, 5 m asl) and 3) a coastal lagoon 3 km west of Carupano (10º39'53''N, 63º 18 ' 11''W, 9 m asl) and 4) the Río Casanay in the town of Guarapiche (10º30'31''N, 63º 23'14''W, 70 m asl). According to our review, locality 1 corresponds to tributaries of the Río Campoma, localities 2 and 3 correspond to the coastal marine ecosystem (estuary) called the Playa Grande (the Laguna El Copey complex), and locality 4 (Río Casanay), which belongs to the Río Campoma basin, since it is a tributary of the Laguna Buena Vista (Río Campoma-Casanay system). The Laguna El Copey is supplied by small temporary or intermittent tributaries, the most important of which is the Quebrada Playa Grande. Additionally, Poeser et al. (2005) selected a batch of paratypes (UMMZ 158715, 30 specimens) captured in 1939 in a stream, 35 km west of Carupano. This may correspond to some tributary of the northern slope of the Río Campoma-Casanay.

It is important to mention that Poeser et al. (2005) wrongly include all the sites where they captured or studied Poecilia wingei specimens in the Paria Peninsula. This information is also recently cited in other works of systematic catalogues and international databases (Huber 2019, Fricke et al. 2020) and even in regional inventories (Salazar et al. 2019). However, this peninsula is located more than 80 km east of the region of the Campoma-Casanay hydrographic system (and the Campoma and Buena Vista lagoons), and more than 50 km from the Laguna Playa Grande - El Copey complex. Actually, the hydrographic system of the Río Campoma-Casanay is located between the southern slope of the mountainous system of the Penísula de Araya and the north-eastern slope of the Turimiquire Massif (Eastern Coast Range), while the Laguna Playa Grande - El Copey is located north of Cerro Campeare and the Río Casanay south of this mountain system.

Later, in the Río Campoma-Casanay hydrographic system, Bonilla et al. (2010) recorded Poecilia wingei in at least three localities that we place in this evaluation. These are the Laguna Buena Vista (10º31'26''N, 63º 28'52''W, 5 m asl) and Campoma (10º31'00''N, 63º 26'29''W, 2 m asl), as well as its tributaries, the Rio Casanay (10º30'49''N, 63º 20'49''W, 133 m asl), the Rio Grande and Quebrada Seca (10º23'19''N, 63º 37'54''W , 163 m asl), respectively. These last two water courses are tributaries of the Río Carinicuao, which flows into the Río Cariaco and this, in turn, discharges its waters into the lower section of the Río Campoma, before its mouth and estuary in the Gulf of Cariaco. This species is also cited for the Río Casanay by Salazar and Arcia-Barreto (2020), without indicating a precise location. Previously, Carvajal (1972), recorded populations of Poecilia reticulata in the Buena Vista and Campoma lagoons, which could actually be P. wingei.

As Endler (2011) indicates, Poecilia wingei was recorded, prior to its description, from other localities west of the current Type locality. In this way, since 1975 Endler recorded it in the coastal marine ecosystem (estuary) Laguna de los Patos (10º25'50''N, 64º 12'11''W, 2 m asl) on the west bank of the city of Cumaná and west of the Río Manzanares. Additionally, he identified specimens of this species captured between 1935 and 1937 together with Poecilia reticulata. Works by national researchers carried out in this coastal marine system in the 1960s and 1970s, only mentioned Poecilia reticulata subpopulations (Carvajal 1965, Aguilera and Carvajal 1976), which, as Endler (2011) points out, could also be treated as P. wingei. In recent years (2014 - 2017), Salazar et al. (2019), recorded P. wingei in this system, without indicating precise localities.

Finally, in different past and more recent inventories of the Río Manzanares fish, Poecilia wingei was not recorded, only P. reticulata (Aguilera and Carvajal 1976, Pérez et al. 2003, Ruíz et al. 2005, Salazar et al. 2018, Salazar and Arcia-Barreto 2020). However, in recent years we have registered subpopulations of P. wingei in the coastal marine system Laguna de Punta Delgada (10º27'51''N, 64º 06'20''W, 2 m asl), located at the mouth of the artificial channel (spillway) of the Río Manzanares, in the north-east sector of the city of Cumaná. On the other hand, since at least 2015 we have detected the proliferation of subpopulations of P. wingei in different rainwater collecting canals, in various streets and avenues of the urban area of the city of Cumaná (10º28'06''N, 64º 11'02''W, 6 m asl), subjected to  sewage overflowing from the public drainage.

Unfortunately, in our review of collections from Venezuela (MBUCV, MHNLS, EBRG and MCNG), we did not find any records of this species, despite the various works cited by national authors (Carvajal 1965, 1972; Aguilera and Carvajal 1976; Pérez et al. 2003; Ruíz et al. 2005; Bonilla et al. 2010; Salazar et al. 2018, 2019; Salazar and Arcia-Barreto 2020).

In conclusion, Poecilia wingei, has been registered in at least 14 localities in the north-eastern region of Venezuela, in the Sucre State. It is distributed in five ecosystems, corresponding to three coastal marine lagoons (Playa Grande - El Copey, Los Patos and Punta Delgada), two continental lagoons (Campoma and Buena Vista), which belong respectively to three small or medium hydrographic basins: Quebrada Playa Grande, temporary tributary streams of Laguna de los Patos (Rio Manzanares) and Rio Campoma-Casanay.

For a detailed description of the acronyms of the cited collections see Sabaj (2016) and Fricke and Eschmeyer (2020).

Formally, Poecilia wingei was only known from the series of type specimens (holotype: ZMA 123.704, Allotype: ZMA 123.705 and paratypes: ZMA 123.636, ZMA 123.637, ZMA 123.638, ZMA 123.645, ZMA 123.647, ZMA 123.648 and UMMZ 158715), a total of 197 specimens captured in the years 1939 and 2002, respectively. However, the number of specimens varied between localities, with about seven specimens in a tributary channel of the Playa Grande - El Copey lake system and 67 specimens in tributary irrigation channels of the Río Campoma, between the Campoma and Buena Vista lagoons.

There are no population estimates for this species. Most of the inventories and work records of national authors do not indicate the number of specimens captured (Carvajal 1965, 1972; Aguilera and Carvajal 1976; Pérez et al. 2003; Ruíz et al. 2005; Bonilla et al. 2010; Salazar et al. 2018, 2019; Salazar and Arcia-Barreto 2020). Only Carvajal (1972) indicates the capture in 1969 of 180 specimens in the Río Buena Vista (=Río Campoma) and 36 specimens in the Laguna de Campoma, respectively, which were identified at the time as Poecilia reticulata, and could contain in turn individuals of P. wingei. For their part, Ruiz et al. (2005), although they point out that the most abundant species in the Río Mazanares was Poecilia reticulata, with 65% of the captures in the drought period of 2001, and 54% in the rainy period, these authors did not find this species or any other of the Poecilidae family, in the lower or estuarine sector of this river system, precisely where we have registered P. wingei for the present evaluation.

However, Endler (2011) explains that between 1934 and 2005, a progressive decrease in the subpopulations of Poecilia reticulata occurred in Laguna de los Patos, and a sustained increase in Poecilia wingei or a hybrid form between these two species. In this work, apparently according to museum samples (UMMZ), a collection made by Endler and observations of his local collaborators, recorded a relative abundance ratio between Poecilia reticulata and P. wingei of 80% / 20% in 1934, 70% / 30% in 1975, 10% / 90% in 1990, until no specimen of P. reticulata was found in 2005. Despite this population increase, it must be taken into account that Endler indicates the hybridization of these two populations being an extremely important point to take into account. Hybridization is among the worst threats to P. wingei, at least in this ecosystem and locality, which must be thoroughly and extensively evaluated.

Likewise, to evaluate the population status of Poecilia wingei, it is very important to take into account the taxonomic status of this species, because (see Taxonomic Notes), the external identification of this species is relatively difficult, since the coloration patterns between P. wingei and P. reticulata are usually similar and highly variable, causing much confusion. According to Huber (2019), P. wingei is a typical “molecular species”, not diagnosable by some pattern or combination of external characters. In addition to this, although some authors, based on genetic studies, recognize Poecilia wingei as a different species from P. reticulata (eg: Schories et al. 2009), other authors did not find sufficient genetic evidence that can separate or differentiate the two species (eg: Herdeguen et al. 2014).

Finally, as there are no current published studies that assess the status of its subpopulations and abundances, its current trend is unknown, although it is believed to be decreasing, given the serious threats and severe degradation of the ecosystems where it lives (See Threats section).

Poecilia wingei lives in three coastal systems in the north of Venezuela, in its eastern region, in the so-called Caribbean Sea basin. It is one of the species of the genus Poecilia with a restricted distribution.

The basin of its type locality (Río Campoma-Casanay Basin) is located between the southern slope of the Araya Peninsula mountain system and the north-eastern slope of the Turimiquire Massif (Cordillera de la Costa Oriental). It has a total area of 1,172 km², between the Campoma and Casanay rivers system (507 km²) and its main source, the Río Carinicuao (665 km²) (Salazar and Arcia-Barreto 2020). According to Carvajal (1972), the Río Campoma runs for 4.5 km and has a depth of three to four meters maximum depth. In the lower section or estuary of this river, a phenomenon occurs in which the direction of the current is reversed and the river runs upwards, where the salinity can reach 27 ‰ and the temperature can reach 28.5 ºC during the dry season (April), up to at least 1,600 m upstream of the river mouth. This is the product of the phenomenon called Seiche, an oscillatory rise in sea level, which occurs only in the easternmost sector of the Gulf of Cariaco, where the Río Campoma empties (Carvajal 1972).

The most important lotic bodies of water in this basin are the Campoma and Buena Vista lagoons, which occupy an area of 13.25 km² and 37.88 km², and are located in low altitude areas (<10 m asl) and waterlogged, with abundant floating and rooted aquatic vegetation (Paspalum vagunatum, Typha angustifolia, Nymphaea sp., Eleocharis guttata, Eichhornia crassipes, Sagittaria sp.) (Carvajal 1972). According to this last author, Laguna de Campoma has a depth of 1.75 m throughout the year, but Laguna Buena Vista has a variable depth between the rainy season (1 m) and the dry season (0.70 m). Due to the large amount of aquatic vegetation and organic matter, the waters of these lagoons and rivers have a reddish and dark colour, for which it is concluded that their pH must be acidic, classifying them as black waters (Sensu Sioli 1975). Carvajal (1972), observed a variation in the level of the Río Buena Vista (= Río Casanay ), between 1.8 m in the rainy season, and 0.7 m in the dry season, at which time he describes the mortality of fish and molluscs, product of anoxic waters and high temperatures (> 35 ºC). However, currently, due to such prolonged and strong droughts, the Campoma and Buena Vista lagoons can become completely dry (Salazar and Arcia-Barreto 2020), with the consequent reduction in fish populations.

Additionally, Poecilia wingei has also been found associated with coastal water bodies, or the so-called coastal marine lagoons (estuaries). First is the Laguna de Los Patos, which has been extensively studied since the 1960s. It is located south-west of the main mouth of the Río Manzanares and on the margin of the City of Cumaná, and has an area of 1.5 km², in a depression below mean sea level, with a depth that varies between 0.40 to 1.00 m (Carvajal 1965, Salazar et al. 2019). It is made up of interconnected water bodies, bordered to a large extent by swampy and flooded soils that maintain a precarious communication with the sea through a channel (Cumaná 2010). The salinity in this lagoon experiences large fluctuations ranging from 0.4 to 40 ‰ (Carvajal 1965, Leal and Scremin 2011) due to the entry of freshwater during the rainy season, coming from drains, irrigation systems, and some streams that flow into the area, and sewage from some sectors (Márquez et al. 2007). The vegetation is mainly made up of Mangrove species (Avicennia germinans, Rhizophora mangle and few individuals of Conocarpus erectus and Laguncularia racemosa), typical of these estuaries with marine influence most of the year (Cumaná 2010). Second, the Laguna de Punta Delgada is located on the left bank of the mouth of the Río Manzanares spillway channel, below the two meter altitude level and on the northeast bank of the city of Cumaná. It has a surface area of 123.72 hectares, between the lagoon and the swampy plain, colonized by shrub vegetation and mangroves, and its waters present a salinity that ranges between 0 and 37 ‰ (Bello et al. 2020). Finally, is the Playa Grande - El Copey lagoon complex. We do not know if it has been studied, as we did not find published works, academic, or technical reports on its biodiversity. It is formed by two lagoons, El Copey to the west, with a surface area of 39.95 ha, and Playa Grande to the east, with a surface area of 77.30 ha. It must present high salinities, due to the low water supply of the region.

The record of this species in different rainwater collection channels, in various streets and avenues of the urban area of the city of Cumaná, is disturbing. The species is under the influence of the sewage overflowing from the public sewer system, which denotes its wide tolerance to waters with low values of dissolved oxygen and high temperatures, with a large amount of decomposing organic matter of urban origin. The high capacity and tolerance to extreme environmental variables of Poecilidae is known, such as its most related species or sister species, Poecilia reticulata, which can live in waters with low dissolved oxygen values, extreme acid or alkaline pH values, and at high temperatures (Meffe and Snelson 1989). This species also has a great capacity to increase its population in hostile and intervened environments and, therefore, is indicative of poor water quality (Fagundes et al. 2015). High consumption of organic matter (> 80% of the volume of the diet), a product of human waste, has been found in introduced subpopulations of P. reticulata in urban rivers (Reis de Carvalho et al. 2019), where this species can reach to dominate the local fish community in terms of abundance (> 90%) and displace native species (Cruz and Pompeu 2020).

In terms of habitat and ecosystem use, Poecilia wingei, although it can be found in small natural streams and intervened ecosystems such as irrigation canals for agricultural use and sewage drainage in urban sites, has a preference for calmer water from lentic ecosystems (continental freshwater lagoons) and, apparently, estuarine ecosystems (coastal marine lagoons), in this case of a negative type, where salinity can be higher than that of the adjacent seawater (> 37 ‰). However, its tolerance to salinity has not been studied so far.

The absence of Poecilia wingei in other coastal fluvial systems of northern Venezuela, adjacent to the sub-basins of the Campoma-Casanay and Manzanares rivers and Lagunas de Los Patos and Playa Grande - El Copey, draws our attention. These are to the west, the sub-basins of the Aragua and Nerverí rivers, as well as the Río Unare, and to the east, the basin of the rivers that drain into the Gulf of Paria, whose biodiversity has been studied since the 1960s until at least 10 years ago, and P. wingei or a similar characteristic species was not included in its ichthyofauna (Mago 1965, Fernández-Yépez 1970, Herrera and López 1997, Marín 2000, Mago and Marín 2004, Rodríguez-Olarte et al. 2009, Lasso et al. 2010).

Regarding its altitudinal distribution, according to its geographical distribution, it is found from sea level to at least 133 m asl, in the Río Casanare (Bonilla et al. 2010). However, there is a record at 163 m asl in a mountain watercourse (Bonilla et al. 2010), which we consider doubtful given the habitat preferences in lowland coastal marine ecosystems. Likewise, the cited authors did not deposit material in museum collections that can be examined by us to verify that identification and registration.

All aspects of the biology of the species, such as feeding, reproduction, etc. in the natural environment of Poecilia wingei are unknown. We do not assume that it is very similar to its sister species Poecilia reticulata.

Poecilia wingei shares its habitat in the Río Campoma-Casanare basin with at least 42 species that have been cited for this basin, including the Campoma and Buena Vista lagoons, where 16 and eight species have been recorded, respectively (Carvajal 1972, Bonilla et al. 2010). It is important to mention that of the 42 registered species, about 24 (57%) are of marine and estuarine habits, with which this system can be classified as a typical estuary. Furthermore, it is important to compare the results presented by the authors cited above, in order to estimate the state of conservation of the fish community in this system over time. Thus, between 1969 and 1970, the ichthyofauna of this system consisted of about 33 species, while in 2009, only about 16 species were recorded. These results indicate an evident deterioration of this ecosystem and its biota in the last 50 years, with a reduction or loss of the diversity estimated in 49% of the species. We explain the reasons for this loss of species or reduction of diversity in the Threats section.

In the Laguna de Los Patos, Poecilia wingei has been recorded together with 47 species, according to past and recent inventories (Carvajal 1965, Aguilera and Carvajal 1976, Pérez et al. 2003, Ruíz et al. 2005, Salazar et al. 2019). Of these, 38 species (80%) are marine and estuarine, due to the nature of the estuary or coastal marine lagoon system. When comparing inventories of at least 45 years ago (Carvajal 1965, Aguilera and Carvajal 1976), with those of 20 years ago (Pérez et al. 2003, Ruíz et al. 2005) with the most recent (Salazar et al. 2019), we find a variation (decrease and subsequent increase) in the number of species from 23, 6, 12 to 44 species respectively. This is the product of more complete inventories, an update in the identification, taxonomy and nomenclature of the species and, above all, the recent colonization of more and more species of marine and estuarine habits. The ecological composition of species (80% are marine and estuarine vs 20% freshwater), has not changed throughout the period (1964-2017). However, Aguilera and Carvajal (1976) already indicated a reduction in the diversity of fish species by 74% (from 23 to 6 species) with respect to the inventory carried out 10 years earlier (Carvajal 1965). This reduction, due to different factors and situations, is explained in the threats section.

In the Laguna de Punta Delgada, Poecilia wingei has been recorded with 40 marine and estuarine species and nine freshwater species, which tolerate some variations in salinity (unpublished data). There is no known inventory of the Playa Grande - El Copey lagoon system, although we do know of at least one species introduced into this system, as explained in the threats section.

Poecilia wingei is strongly threatened, directly and indirectly, by several factors, including hybridization, exploitation as an ornamental species, introduction of exotic species, alteration of the habitat, water pollution, and climate change. These factors are the most common that have been recorded in the river systems of Venezuela (Rodríguez-Olarte et al. 2019). However, all these factors must be studied in detail to know their effect on the subpopulations of this species.

The exploitation or extraction of specimens from the natural environment, for use as an ornamental species, is detailed in the Use and Trade section. However, as this activity is carried out illegally, without any kind of surveillance or control, we believe that it is a strong threat factor for this species.

The hybridization of Poecilia wingei with its sister species P. reticulata, detailed by Endler (2011), in the Lagunar de Los Patos system, is a very worrying factor or threat. This is due to the genetic loss, genetic erosion, or genetic change that is supposed to have occurred in the past and is occurring in the present, in the populations that inhabit this lagoon system, in addition to all the other problems that occur there (see below). Due to this, it is highly probable that Herdeguen et al. (2014) came to the conclusion that Poecilia wingei is not genetically different from P. reticulata. Other authors have also reached this conclusion (no genetic differentiation between Poecilia wingei and P. reticuala) (Alexander and Breden 2004, Alexander et al. 2006, Ward et al. 2008, Tripathi et al. 2009ab, Watson et al. 2010), so they call Cumaná Guppy both the subpopulations present in the aquatic ecosystems adjacent to and near the city of Cumaná, as well as the subpopulations of the Río Campoma-Casanay basin (type locality of P. wingei). This hybridization problem may be occurring throughout the P. wingei distribution area, given the movement and introduction of species by man, as we explain below. In any case, the genetic future of this species is uncertain.

The sub-basins of the rivers that drain into the Caribbean Sea in Venezuela are the ones with the largest number of introduced species, with at least 10 of the exotic type (originating from other continents or countries) and 22 of the transferred type (originating from transfers and introductions between basins of Venezuela) (Lasso-Alcalá 2001, 2003, 2013). The main species of exotic type introduced in the distribution area of Poecilia wingei is the Black Tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus, which has a series of implications, given the biological and ecological characteristics of this species of Cichlidae. Among these characteristics we have their piscivorous predatory habits, a moderate fecundity but with a strong parental care of eggs and young (territorialism), and rapid population growth, among others, for which the ecological consequences that these introduced species of fish may have are unpredictable. (Lasso-Alcalá et al. 2014). Some of these consequences are direct predation, interspecific competition, displacement, extinction of native species, changes in the specific composition and trophic structure, and loss of biodiversity in the ecosystem, for which, Oreochromis mossambicus has been listed as one of the 100 most harmful alien species in the world (Lowe et al. 2004). It was introduced in the Laguna de Los Patos system in 1964, for the purpose of experimental crops (Khandker 1964, Carvajal 1965, Luengo 1970). Twelve years later, after this introduction, the disappearance or displacement of 74% of the fish species previously known for said littoral ecosystem is noted (Aguilera and Carvajal 1976, Jiménez 1977). From Laguna de los Patos, where it lives to this day (Salazar et al. 2019), this species quickly dispersed and invaded the coasts of the Gulf of Cariaco, thanks to its wide tolerance to salinity (Philippart and Ruwet 1982, Trewavas 1982, Pullin 1988), including growth and reproduction at 35 ‰ and survival to 120 ‰ (Brock 1954, Dial and Wainright 1983, Stickney 1986, Nico and Neilson 2020). In the Río Manzanares basin, it has invaded from its mouth to its middle sector (Nirchio and Pérez 2002, Pérez et al. 2003, Senior et al. 2004, Ruíz et al. 2005, Salazar et al. 2018, Salazar and Arcia-Barreto 2020 ), and the rainwater and wastewater collection systems of the city of Cumaná, where P. wingei also lives. Likewise, it has also been recorded in the Río Campoma-Casanay basin (Boniilla et al. 2010) and the authors of this evaluation have captured it in the Laguna de Punta Delgada and in the coastal marine system of the Laguna de Playa Grande and El Copey (unpublished data).

Other introduced species, of the transferred type, have also been recorded in the range of Poecilia wingei. This time, they are also two species of Cichlidae native to Venezuela, but with similar biological and ecological characteristics and impact on native species as exotic species. The Mojarra de Río or San Pedro, Caquetaia kraussii, is a native species of the Lago de Maracaibo basin and, apparently, of the coastal basin of the Río Tuy, which was introduced into the basins of the Gulf of Paria, Orinoco, Unare and Lago de Valencia, rapidly invading these systems (Royero and Lasso 1992, Senaris and Lasso 1993, Rodriguez-Olarte et al. 2011, Pérez et al. 2018). It is considered the ecological equivalent of the Black Tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus in terms of its impact on the native fauna (Señaris and Lasso 1993). It has been recorded in the basins of the rivers Campoma-Casanay (Boniilla et al. 2010), Manzanares (Senior et al. 2004, Salazar et al. 2018, Salazar and Arcia-Barreto 2020), Laguna de Los Patos system (Salazar et al. 2019 ) and recently from the Laguna de Punta Delgada (unpublished data). For its part, the Mataguaro Crenicichla geayi, originating from the Río Orinoco basin and coastal basins of the Aroa, Yaracuy and RíoTuy (Lasso and Machado-Allison 2000, Lasso et al. 2003, Rodriguez-Olarte et al. 2011), has been registered as introduced in the Río Manzanares basin (Senior et al. 2004; Salazar et al. 2007, 2018) and Río Campoma-Casanay (Boniilla et al. 2010). On the other hand, in this last basin, between the towns of Casanay and Pantoño, there is a set of man-made recreational facilities (thermal water complex) that are connected to this basin, where we have observed the presence of O. mossambicus and other exotic Cichlidae species (eg: Thorichthys meeki and others), which must be studied to know their final identification, distribution, and impact on native species. In any case, these already identified introduced species, together with more than 30 native carnivorous species, may be exerting significant reductions or even local extinctions on Poecilia wingei populations.

Habitat alteration is also a very important factor that may be negatively affecting the survival of Poecilia wingei subpopulations. The lagoon systems of Los Patos and Punta Delgada have been isolated from the Río Manzanares since the 1970s. Carvajal (1965) mentions the communication of these systems with the lower and estuary sector of the Río Mazanares, while Pérez et al. (2003), Senior et al. (2004) and Ruíz et al. (2005), no longer provide any type of information on this. Likewise, according to our observations and those of some authors (Arbuatti and 2007, Salazar et al. 2018), large areas of these lagoons have been filled in to obtain or expand lands that have been urbanized by the population increase of the city of Cumaná. This and other areas around the lagoons have been invaded with human populations with scarce economic resources and inadequate housing. These human invasions, in turn, cause an impact on the mangrove forests, with the cutting of firewood for domestic use (to cook food), in the last 20 years of economic and social deterioration of the country. Pérez et al. (2003), observed the total or partial desiccation of the Laguna de Los Patos System in the drought period (April - May) of 2001, a situation that has continued in recent years. This increasingly scarce water supply in these lagoon systems has caused the increase in salinity (up to 40 ‰) for longer periods of the year (up to seven months), and the colonization of species of marine and estuarine habits, if we compare the works of Carvajal (1965: 21 species) with those of Pérez et al. (2003: 16 species) and Salazar et al. (2019: 33 species). In turn, an increase in the number of predators (> 30 species) has been observed, which can further reduce the subpopulations of P. wingei. Another habitat alteration that these lagoon systems present is the presence of wastewater treatment plants in the city of Cumaná that have been built within the lagoons themselves. Another habitat alteration is the construction in 1972 of a diversion of the Río Manzanares (spillway) in order to prevent flooding (Salazar et al. 2018), which flows into the right bank of the Laguna Punta Delgada. As can be seen, P. wingei currently inhabits systems that are highly modified from their original or natural conditions. Another risk to which these lagoons are exposed is their isolation from the adjacent sea, due to the closure of their mouths, due to the sedimentation of terrigenous materials on the coastline. In the Río Mazanares basin, poor agricultural practices (logging, burning, grazing), added to non-metallic mining (gravel and sand) in the basin, cause excessive soil erosion and very high sediment transport (Senior et al. 2004, 2005; Salazar et al. 2018). According to these authors, the spillway channel of the Río Manzanares and its natural mouth, added to the direction of the marine currents predominate, favour the modification of the coastline, and its transport capacity is related to the high discharge and drag capacity of sediments from the Río Manzanares. In this regard, Medina et al. (2013) determined that the Río Manzanares transported to the Cumaná coastline (where the Los Patos and Punta Delgada lagoons are located), a total of 874,823,208 m³/year of water on average.

In the Río Campoma-Casanay basin, the water intakes for urban and agricultural use, as well as slash and burn of the basin forests for the expansion of arable land, are very widespread, where Poecilia wingei has colonized some of these irrigation canal systems (Poeser et al. 2005). According to few sources (MARNR 1995, 2005), some of the impacts in this basin, such as migratory agriculture (conucos) and, without cultural protection techniques, subsistence crops associated with the deforestation of forest remnants, among others, are relevant. In the flat lands, the cultivation of sugar cane has predominated, a monoculture that is considered problematic in the area, which has occupied 70% of the area. Conflicts in land use have caused the watersheds to be intervened by short-cycle crops, which means the absence of secondary successions (Salazar and Arcia-Barreto 2020). Likewise, there is a continuous extraction of water from the aquifers of the basin, for the supply of more than 30 private recreational complexes (hot springs), of medium and small size, whose impact has not been evaluated. In this way, salinization and environmental deterioration in this basin is evident. Currently, due to the water deficit exerted by bad agricultural practices and other water withdrawals, added to the prolonged and strong droughts, the Campoma and Buena Vista lagoons dry up completely (Salazar and Arcia-Barreto 2020), with the consequent reduction or local extinction of fish populations. In one of the main tributaries to the south of this basin (Rio Caraico-Carinicuao), due to the large number of fires in the original forest of the northeastern slope of the Turimiquire Massif where this river system is located, together with the bad agricultural practices of migratory crops (deforestation to create conucos), soil erosion is very strong. The large contributions of organic matter and high proportions of sand and silt from the Río Cariaco-Carinicuao have been associated with the metallic pollutants that have been found in the easternmost sector of the Gulf of Cariaco (Salazar and Arcia-Barreto 2020). If we compare the results of the fish inventories carried out in 1969 and 1970 (Carvajal 1972: 33 species) and 2009 (Bonilla et al. 2010: 16 species), we observe a reduction or loss of the diversity estimated in 49% of the species.

The contamination of the water in the aquatic ecosystems where Poecilia wingei lives is notable, given the proximity to large urban centers such as the city of Cumaná, with more than 680,000 inhabitants, to cite just one example. The wastewater treatment plants discharge their poorly treated water from the city of Cumaná to the Los Patos and Punta Delgada lagoons. Likewise, the neighboring communities to these lagoons also do it directly (Salazar et al. 2019). The Laguna de Los Patos presents a high degree of eutrophication (NT: 538.08 µmol / l, NO 330.05 µmol / l, NH4 +: 224.42 µmol / l, PO: 31.40 µmol / l, PT 62, 75 µmol / l), especially in the rainy season, where the contributions of wastewater are higher (Torcatt 2015). Similarly, the presence of high levels of heavy metals has been detected in the water of this lagoon, and in fish species with similar ecological characteristics to P. wingei. Toledo et al. (2000) found maximum values in water of the metals Cu (11.6 ml / l), Cd (5.5 ml / l) and Pb (29.5 ml / l), and a much higher accumulation (Cu 100.7 μg / g, Cd 33.8 μg / g and Pb 138.5 μg / g) in tissue of the species Cyprinodon dearborni. In the Río Campoma basin, the contamination with agrochemicals widely used in local agriculture, and wastewater from the populations of Cariaco, Casanay, Pantoño, Campoma, Rió Casanay, Guarapiche and 15 other minor ones, is also notable, and in the Lagunas from Playa Grande and El Copey, can be seen with the naked eye with a high degree of eutrophication (dark green waters), as they receive the wastewater from the coastal towns of Playa Grande and Copacabana. Also many of the wastewater, urban and industrial pollutants generated along the basin of the Río Manzanares end up in this watercourse without any treatment (Senior et al. 2004, 2005). Within the agrochemicals used in the Manzanares basin, Glyphosphate as a herbicide is mentioned (Salazar et al. 2018), which caused cellular stress, mortality of individuals, mutations, loss of diversity, and genetic damage of populations of the native species Ancistrus brevifilis (Lárez and Alfonsi 2011), to cite one example.

In general terms, the rivers that are born in the different orographic systems located in the north of Venezuela present a state of conservation that goes from fair to bad, and especially those that drain towards the Caribbean Sea, except for the upper basins of the rivers of the Cordillera de la Costa mountain range (Blanco et al. 2015; Rodríguez-Olarte et al. 2008, 2019; Martínez 2020). However, in the upper sectors of these sub-basins the ichthyological diversity is very low.

Finally, we must indicate that climate change is also a significant threat to the survival of this species. On the one hand, the low altitudinal distribution (0 - 133 m asl) and its great proximity to the coast, puts it at high risk due to the rise in sea level. On the other hand, we have already mentioned how, in the last 20 years, the total or partial desiccation of the lagoon bodies of Las Patos, Campoma and Buena Vista, during the dry climatic season (Pérez et al. 2003, Salazar and Arcia-Barreto 2020), is becoming more and more frequent. According to Paredes-Trejo et al. (2020), rainfall changes have implications on the seasonal water regime of rivers, since they could trigger complex impacts on river ecosystems and their ichthyofauna. Due to the now exaggeratedly reduced flow of the rivers, during the dry season, fish are more vulnerable to overfishing and exposure to pesticides and pollutants in general (Winemiller et al. 1996). Similarly, climate variability (induced or not by global warming) can change the water regime of rivers (at least temporarily), putting the integrity and functioning of ecosystems at risk and causing their detriment. Consequently, the occurrence of years characterized by a severe water deficit or a water surplus in conjunction with the overexploitation of hydrobiological resources and river pollution can reduce their conservation status (Silva et al. 2016). Furthermore, it is foreseeable to assume that habitats and biota in watersheds that are experiencing excess or deficit rainfall may not evolve fast enough to adapt to the change in precipitation (Paredes-Trejo et al. 2020). In conclusion, these authors propose that if this situation continues, it is necessary to establish special protection figures over those most affected regions identified as 'hotspots', which guarantee the conservation of hydrographic basins threatened by climate variability, induced or not by global warming.

Due to the striking coloration pattern of Poecilia wingei, since Dr Endler and Kallman, in 1975, made this new form of Poecilia known, the species has been commercially exploited without any control, through its reproduction and distribution among the numerous ornamental fish breeders in different parts of the world. This continuous exploitation is due to its ability to hybridize with Poecilia reticulata and to the loss of phenotypic characters (colour pattern and in part its shape) with captive breeding. This has generated an extraction and exploitation of the subpopulations of the species in its natural distribution, to supply a market of increasingly growing ornamental species.

There are numerous breeders in different cities of Venezuela and other countries like Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Argentina, and Spain, who are supplied from distributors in the United States (Miami). These distributors from the United States are continually supplied by the many ornamental fish fishermen in the city of Cumaná. This activity is carried out illegally, without any kind of surveillance or control. There is no data on the quantities of specimens exported, but it is estimated that there are thousands of specimens per shipment, given their small size.

There are no specific measures for the protection of Poecilia wingei, nor have any regional (national) assessment been carried out on its conservation status.

A small part of the river systems where this species inhabits is protected by some conservation and management figures called Areas Under the Special Administration Regime (ABRAE for its acronym in Spanish). Its presence in the Laguna de Los Patos and Punta Delgada Litoral Parks could represent a safeguard for P. wingei, since both wetlands are listed as a Special ABRAE since March 7, 1979 (Presidential Decree No. 2993, Official Gazette No. 2.417 Extraordinary), in addition to having a legal framework for its safeguarding and protection, according to the Organic Law for Planning and Management of Land Use Planning (2006). In any of the cases, no sanctioning laws are applied to ensure the conservation of the biological components of these peri-urban coastal wetlands located in the city of Cumaná (Salazar et al. 2019, Bello et al. 2020).

However, the functionality of these areas is very limited and the effects on the vegetation cover due to illegal agricultural practices can be easily observed on satellite images (Google Earth). The effectiveness of the decrees on protected areas is not very high, as evidenced by the various and numerous threats described in this evaluation and the reports on the frequent capture and use for the ornamental trade of Poecilia wingei.

The above situation is common in all hydrographic basins of Venezuela, where despite the number and diversity of protected areas, their effectiveness is highly questioned, due in part to all the environmental and conservation problems (threats) mentioned in the previous section. On the other hand, and just as an example, in the western region of Venezuela, Rodríguez-Olarte et al. (2011, 2019) indicate that existing protected areas should be modified and expanded. This is due to the fact that most of the protected areas show a low effectiveness for the conservation of fish species, mainly because they are very small or because they include only fragments of tributaries or basins, or because they were located in mountain areas, where diversity species was minimal. This situation can be extrapolated to the protected areas of the eastern region of Venezuela.

Given the diverse and serious threats to Poecilia wingei and its ecosystem, it is difficult to present specific recommendations or propose actions in favour of the conservation of this species and the environment where it lives.

As already stated in this section, protected areas in Venezuela (ABRAE for its acronym in Spanish) are insufficient in number and functionality, either because they are very small, or because they are located in regions where most of the species are not found (high areas of the basins). Another problem detected is that they only cover a small part of the species' distribution area and that they lack all the infrastructure to exercise adequate surveillance and control, which is why these "protected areas" do not work and are heavily affected by anthropic alterations. Therefore, three actions are recommended: 1) create new areas and protection figures (in areas of public and private properties) in the lower regions of the basins; 2) expand existing protected areas; 3) Provide the staff (eg: park rangers) in charge of the custody of protected areas (eg: National Parks Institute - Inparques), with current training, infrastructure, equipment, supplies and adequate living conditions to be able to exercise greater surveillance and control, as well as to provide adequate environmental education to the residents near the protected areas; 4) Encourage, with the residents of the protected areas, sustainable economic activities for the protection and conservation of these areas, such as ecotourism and sport fishing. Likewise, in protected areas and other non-protected areas, which have already been impacted by anthropic activities, such as agriculture, it is recommended to establish more sustainable agricultural practices programs, such as the so-called “organic crops”, including shade coffee (Coffea arabica) in the middle and upper regions of the basins, or cocoa (Theobroma cacao), in the low and humid regions. Reforestation plans with native species should also be established for the recovery of degraded forest areas in the watersheds. These plans can be established with the help of private initiatives and international aid, as well as recovering and reactivating national reforestation plans, which the Venezuelan state had in the past (more than 20 years ago) and gave good results.

Other actions include exercising greater vigilance and control over the large-scale extraction of these species for commercial (consumer) fishing and ornamental fishing. Almost all the captures of the species exploited by these two types of fishing are exported to international markets (commercial fishing: Asia, ornamental fishing: from Venezuela to Colombia, and from there to North America, Asia and Europe), yielding very little benefit to local communities, to the detriment of fish populations and their ecosystem. To correct this, the closures and quotas already established by regulations, norms and laws in force must be respected, as well as revising and adapting these regulations to the new conditions of pressure from international markets. Greater importance should be given to the study, establishment and dissemination of a more sustainable or subsistence fishing. Support and financing should also be given to fish farming programs, as well as to implement training in the fish farming area at the level of rural communities, to promote crops with native species of already developed technology, as well as support research to generate technological packages with other native species not studied, but that have the appropriate characteristics for cultivation (promising species). These cultivation programs with native species should not only be destined to the generation of protein for the consumption of local populations, or the cultivation of species with ornamental value, but also to the repopulation of natural ecosystems, where these species have disappeared or their populations are in a state of high threat and / or risk of extinction. The promotion of crops with introduced species (exotic or transferred) should be avoided, educating the communities about the disadvantages of these species, as well as the dangers they pose to the native fauna and the ecosystem.

All these actions must be implemented with an adequate environmental and conservation education plan at different levels, starting with children and young people in primary and secondary education from educational centres, close to the distribution areas of the priority species to be conserved. These education and conservation projects must also involve the adult population of the closest local communities, in order for them to take ownership of the care and rational use of species and the conservation of ecosystems, instilling a sense of belonging, and ecological awareness.

For all these activities, international financial support is needed, as well as their technological and educational expertise. This is extremely necessary in a country with a unique fish megadiversity, which is currently mired in a terrible political, economic and social situation, unprecedented in its history and extremely complex to explain and detail here. This harsh reality has contributed in the last 20 years to an ecosystem deterioration of enormous proportions, to the detriment of an extraordinary biodiversity.