Two subspecies are currently recognised, with the previously recognised subspecies hercegovinensis synonymised with T. h. boettgeri by Fritz et al. (2006):

• T. h. hermanni: northeastern Spain, southeastern France, the Balearic Islands (Spain), Corsica (France), and Sardinia (Italy).
• T. h. boettgeri: the Balkan region, a restricted part of southwestern Romania, and northeastern Italy, with the boundary with T. h. hermanni being the Po River valley.

Two further subspecies have been proposed but are not currently recognised (TTWG 2021);

• T. hermanni ssp. undetermined: Italian Peninsula, Sicily (Biello et al. 2021, Chiocchio et al. 2022).
• T. hermanni ssp. undescribed: southern Peloponnesus, Greece (Bour 2004).

Global and European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)
EU 27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

The European endemic Hermann's Tortoise is assessed as Vulnerable (VU A2acde+4acde) globally and for the EU 27 Member States because the species has been demonstrated to have undergone significant declines at local scales during long-term studies (generally at a rate of about 30% over ten years; for instance in central Italy (Luiselli et al. 2014), and it is suspected that this trend is more general across the range of the species than currently demonstrated by studies and is continuing. This approach is supported by recent PVA studies (Nikolić et al. 2018) of the eastern subspecies (Testudo hermanni boettgeri) in the central Balkans, which found that future declines might qualify the subspecies as Vulnerable (under criterion E, quantitative analysis) as a result of population declines resulting from habitat destruction and fragmentation, illegal trade, and the increased frequency of wildfires. There is wide evidence in the literature through long-term studies that some subpopulations of this species are seriously declining. Testudo hermanni still has a very wide distribution and is quite a habitat generalist, so it is tolerant of moderate habitat changes and alteration. Nonetheless, widespread habitat loss has occurred and continues throughout much of its range, and uncertain but apparently high levels of anthropogenic pressure occur in the eastern part of its range.

Since the species was last assessed in 2004, it appears that levels of threat and population declines that were observed in the western subpopulation at that time are now also being experienced in the eastern subpopulation. One problem is that this is a long-lived species and so it is difficult to arrive at estimates of population decline, and there is a relative lack of baseline data. A consistent pattern of the loss of subpopulations and increasing threat pressures is apparent, but this would benefit from further clarification through long-term population studies.

This European endemic species has a wide, although scattered, distribution in Mediterranean parts of mainland Europe. It occurs from coastal northeastern Spain, through southeastern mainland France, coastal plains and hilly areas of peninsular Italy (up to 990 m asl in southern Italy; Romano et al. 2013), Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean parts of coastal southern Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina (coastal areas and with records inland to Sarajevo), and Montenegro (coastal areas but also inland to the more or less sub-Mediterranean climate zone, including the Lake Skadar area and the vicinity of Danilovgrad; J. Crnobrnja-Isailović pers. comm. January 2023), coastal and central part of Montenegro (Meek and Inskeep 1981, Meek 1984, Ljubisavljevic et al. 2014, Vujović et al. 2015, Iković et al. 2016, Katnić et al. 2017, Vujović et al. 2023), Serbia (Balkan part (southern side of the Danube and Sava rivers), with numerous, dense subpopulations in central, eastern and southern parts of the country, while only scattered subpopulations are present in the western part of the country (Golubović et al. 2019); some sightings of individuals are the result of introduction), Romania (southeasternmost parts and a limited part of southwestern (Cogalniceanu et al. 2013), much of Bulgaria, North Macedonia, nearly all of Albania, the Greek mainland, and European Türkiye. In Spain, the species is native to the Albères Mountains in northern Catalonia (Bertolero 2013); it also occurred in the French part of the Albères but is now considered extinct (J.-M. Ballouard pers. comm. 2023). The species also occurs on numerous European Mediterranean islands; Corsica (France), Italy (Sicily and Sardinia, including Asinara Island and north and northeastern satellite islands) and Greek Ionian islands from Corfu to Zakynthos, and a single island in northern Aegean (Strachinis 2022); it also occurs as introductions on some East Aegean Islands (not mapped). Records from Cyprus are likely to be in error (not mapped; Cheylan 2001).

A study (Perez et al. 2014) of the genetic structure of subpopulations of the species indicated that all geographic areas are highly differentiated, mainly as a function of their distance but with a clear genetic discontinuity between the eastern and the western subspecies. Most genetic pools appear to be of native origin, although hybridisation among subspecies, related to extensive 20th-century trade of tortoises occurs across Europe. Most subpopulations do not seem at immediate risk of low genetic variation, except the French subpopulation, which has very low nuclear genetic diversity.

Three major genetic clusters have been identified along the Italian peninsula and one intraspecific diversity hotspot in southern Italy, highlighting the role of southern Italy as a biodiversity hotspot for temperate fauna (Chiocchio et al. 2022).

In Spain, the species also occurs as recently introduced subpopulations in Catalonia and in Valence (Bertolero 2013), and as older introductions in the Balearic Islands (Mallorca and Menorca) from two sources of origin - Catalonia and another unidentified area (Andreu et al. 1998, Zenboudji et al. 2016).

The species is also considered introduced (not included in map) to Crete, Rhodes and Milos, and individual introductions at the local scale have probably occurred in many areas because the species has been kept in captivity and in private gardens for many decades, and it is likely that many individuals escaped throughout time. For instance, in central Italy (L. Luiselli, L. Rugiero, M. Capula et al.; unpublished observations) recorded the species (including new-born individuals) in sites that were clearly not adequate for sustaining any free-ranging population of this species. The species has been introduced to the Italian Aeolian Islands (Salina Island in the 1980's and Vulcano Island more recently; Lo Cascio and Sciberras 2020) and on Malta, now considered extinct on the latter (D. Cogălniceanu pers. comm. 2023). The current subpopulation on Lampedusa Island, while originally native, now comprises - perhaps in its entirety - of individuals of introduced origin (Lo Cascio and Sciberras 2020), and the same is true for the islands off the coast of Tunisia. As reported in Biello et al. (2021) “The increased sampling effort on some Mediterranean islands (i.e., Sardinia and Lampedusa) confirmed the presence of a single insular genetic cluster.

The extent of occurrence is large (c. 1,658,974 km²). The area of occupancy has not been estimated because (i) the difficulty in some parts in distinguishing between native and introduced records, and (ii) the lack of comprehensive locality records.

The abundance of the species is regionally variable and is presented below by subspecies. Overall it is strongly declining in the west of its range. Long-term data from central Italy showed that a decline of at least 30% has occurred in the last 28 years (Rugiero et al. 2021). However, only three subpopulations were monitored in Rugiero et al. (2021) study, and therefore it is still unknown whether the observed trends are to be generalised to the whole species' range. In the east of its range, where it still appears widespread and locally abundant, the population was in the past considered to be relatively stable. However, recent studies and national Red List assessments show a pattern of decline, and an overall species level of ongoing decline of at least 30% is suspected (Luiselli et al. 2014).

Testudo hermanni hermanni
France
The subspecies is restricted to the Maures and Esterel hill areas, where about 10 subpopulations persist at present, at densities up to 11 animals per hectare (Stubbs 1989, Cheylan 2001, Livoreil 2009). Historically it was known from the French Pyrenean foothills (disappeared 1960-70s) and the Iles d'Hyeres (disappeared mid-19^th century). On Corsica, it is mainly found in the eastern and southern coastal regions, plus scattered subpopulations near Corte and along the northern coast (Cheylan 2001).

In the Plaine des Maures (Provence) and adjacent areas the population seems to be stable but is impacted by fires (A. Bertolero pers. comm. January 2023, Couturier et al. 2014). Recently (2021) the main core area of the subspecies has been strongly affected. The low number of juveniles observed may not only result from a lower detectability but also from specific threats to this age class (Ballouard et al. 2016). Genetic studies reveal an 18% hybridisation prevalence with the exotic eastern subspecies (Bech et al. 2022). On Corsica, the situation is more positive, with a better situation than in mainland France (S. Caron and V. Bosc pers. comm. 2018, A. Bertolero pers. comm. January 2023).

Spain
As native, it is restricted to the northeastern Mediterranean coast, plus Mallorca and Menorca (Pleguezuelos et al. 2002). In mainland Spain, the subspecies is found in low densities (Bertolero 2010); recruitment is the issue, with low or no recruitment (A. Bertolero pers. comm. January 2023)

On Mallorca, where it is introduced, good population numbers occur but there is a problem with recruitment (A. Bertolero pers. comm. January 2023). On Menorca, where it is also introduced, there are good and stable subpopulations (A. Bertolero pers. comm. January 2023).

Italy
The subspecies is mainly concentrated along the Tyrrhenian side of the country, whereas it is less common along the Adriatic side (Corti et al. 2013, 2014). The subspecies has a wide distribution, with a high number of subpopulations, especially in coastal regions, up to 400–500 m, but it can reach about 800 m elevation in the southern regions. In general, the local abundance of the subspecies seems to decrease going inland, and it becomes rare at more than 50 km inland. Long-term (c. 30 years) monitoring of three distinct subpopulations in Mediterranean central Italy (one along the coast and two in hilly inland sites) revealed consistent highly decreasing population trends and the same patterns may be common across the Italian peninsula (Rugiero et al. 2021). The subspecies is scattered on Sicily and Sardinia, where it may locally reach high density. Localised subpopulation extinctions have been documented on the mainland and on some islands (Ballasina 1995, Cheylan 2001), particularly in the surrounding of large urban centres.

Malta
Considered introduced, but it is definitely not present anymore.

T. h. boettgeri
In the Balkans, this subspecies is widely distributed and inhabits especially the coastal regions along the Dalmatian coast, from Istria to Podgorica. In Serbia, Montenegro and North Macedonia, there are several stable subpopulations, although juveniles in some areas are low (A. Golubović pers. comm. January 2023). Based on field data from three populations in Serbia, individuals smaller than 10 cm SCL, i.e. subadults, represented 2% (based on 48 captured individuals), 3.3% (based on 755 captured individuals) and 9.9 % of captured individuals (N=464). These seemingly low numbers of juvenile individuals might also be a result of different spatio-temporal activity patterns compared to adults, thus lower visibility in the field. More specifically:

Croatia
It is restricted to coastal areas and larger islands (Cheylan 2001, Jelić et al. 2012). The population density has been evaluated on Mljet Island (Mljet National Park) at 3.21 ind/ha (95% CI 1,35–7,65) (D. Jelić pers. comm. 2023).

Bosnia-Hercegovina
It inhabits the Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean climate areas, including the Neretva valley of Hercegovina, up to 500 m altitude (Cheylan 2001, and references therein), as well as Trebišnjica valley (Šukalo 2022). There are sporadic records in the inland of the country (A. Adrović pers. comm. 2023).

Serbia and North Macedonia
It is widely distributed in lowland and hilly parts of Serbia (Golubović et al. 2019) and in North Macedonia (Sterijovski and Arsovski 2020). In North Macedonia, it is widely distributed in lowland and hilly parts, but also reaches altitudes of up to 1,200 m up the mountain slopes (Arsovski and Sterijovski 2023). Several population studies across the country reveal varying population densities, highest in the west, with up to 100 ind/ha in Prespa (Arsovski 2018, Bonnet et al. 2016), only ~11 ind/ha in an urban park in the capital of Skopje (where it cohabitates with the Spur-thighed tortoise that has even lower densities of 2.2 ind/ha; Frcovski et al. 2022), and apparently even lower densities in the southeast in the vicinity of the three-way border areas with Greece and Bulgaria, in severely degraded and almost barren habitats, where the Spur-thighed tortoise seems more abundant (personal observations – studies need to back up these notions).

Montenegro
It inhabits the coastal and central parts of Montenegro, with Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean climate up to 600 m altitude, apparently isolated individuals have been found at higher elevations, but it's not clear if they are part of a wider subpopulation (Vujović et al. 2015, Katnić et al. 2017, Gvozdenović 2021, Vujović et al. 2023; A. Vujović pers. comm. April 2023).

Albania
It occurs nearly throughout the country in Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean climates.

Greece
It occurs nearly throughout the country, but it is scarce in the drier southern parts (where it is replaced by Testudo marginata); it occurs up to 140 m (Cheylan 2001, and references therein). Population density may reach up to 60 animals per hectare in exceptional cases, but 1-5 animals per hectare is more usual (Stubbs 1989).

Türkiye
It is restricted to the European part of Türkiye, where it is in decline due to agricultural development (Baran and Atatur 1997, Cheylan 2001) and extensive development of industrial zones (Baran and Atatur 1997, Cheylan 2001, Türkozan et al. 2019) and overharvested for the pet trade (Türkozan and Kiremit 2007). Testudo hermanni shows syntopic occurrence with Testudo graeca in European Türkiye in habitats of shrubs and within forest zones, including forest edges. Illegal overharvesting for the pet trade doesn't seem to have resulted in a decrease in body size. The male-biased population were reported with 1.3 males per female. The stability index ratio indicated a risk of population decline (Türkozan et al. 2019).

Bulgaria
It is historically present throughout the country below 1,300 m, locally up to 1,400 m; it has declined extensively due to anthropogenic factors throughout, and has been locally extirpated, particularly in plains and valleys (Beshkov 1993).

Romania
It is restricted to the southwestern region and occasionally in the southeast, along the border with Bulgaria.

Overall, the population of this subspecies appears stable but the age structure in some subpopulations - at least in Serbia - is biased towards older individuals with lower numbers of juvenile and sub-adults; also, in certain subpopulations the increase of injured/damaged individuals has been recorded during the years of monitoring, indicating that recruitment is low. The causes of the suspected declines are uncertain, however, they coincide with the increase in the number of mesopredators (such as Jackals and Wild Boars), and with agricultural intensification, including agrochemical use, which also has increased across the range of the subspecies (J. Crnobrnja-Isailović pers. comm. January 2023).

Population viability analyses (PVAs) undertaken by Nikolić et al. (2018) on five subpopulations of the eastern subspecies (T. h. boettgeri) in Serbia, Montenegro and North Macedonia found that future declines might qualify the subspecies as Vulnerable (under Criterion E, quantitative analysis) as a result of population declines resulting from over-harvesting, illegal trade, and the increased frequency of wildfires.

There is wide evidence in the literature, through long-term studies, that some subpopulations of this species are seriously declining (e.g., Luiselli et al. 2014).

This species can be considered a typical inhabitant of Mediterranean maquis and shrublands. It prefers open patchy evergreen Mediterranean Oak forest, but in its absence inhabits maquis, garrigue, dune scrub and maritime grasslands, as well as agricultural and railway edge habitats (Stubbs 1989). In central Italy, high-density subpopulations of this tortoise are observed in ecotone sites with Rubus ulmifolius, Cytisus scoparius, and spiny bushes. It can also be found in rocky sites and in the inner clearings of large woodlands (Quercus spp). In the temperate area of the Balkan Peninsula preferred habitat systems are Oak forests intersected with meadows and agricultural land - orchards and vineyards (see in Stojadinović et al. 2017a and Nikolić et al. 2020). In inland parts of Serbia, open Oak forests (at the edges or in clearings) are the primary habitat, with a preference for more complex habitat types (J. Crnobrnja-Isailović pers. comm. January 2023). A diverse habitat structure is preferred by the species. A study on the inter-annual difference in activity patterns and habitat choice in one long-term monitored subpopulation in Serbia (Stojadinović et al. 2017a) also suggested the importance of preserving complex habitat systems for the well-being of this species.

In France, the increase in dense forest cover due the abandonment of pastoral management increased the concentrations of eggs laid in some open areas making it easier for the species’ natural predators (Couturier et al. 2014b); likely, such habitat change influenced population structure of Testudo hermanni characterised by a very low number of juveniles and dominance of large and old individuals (Ballouard et al. 2013). It has been observed that tortoises perform greater movements likely due to a greater search for favourable areas for thermoregulation or foraging. In Montenegro they can be found in rocky terrain, open grass-clearings and the vegetation cover consists mostly of scrub (or pseudomacchia) and also often can be found in areas of traditional agriculture (Meek and Inskeep 1981; Meek 1984, 1988, 1989; Ljubisavljevic at al. 2014, Vujović et al. 2015, Iković et al. 2016, Katnić et al. 2017). Among others, they like an open-type thermophilic deciduous thickets with typical species Quercus trojana, Q. cerris, Fraxinus ornus, Pistacia terebinthus, Punica granatum, Ruscuss acculeatus, Asparagus acutifolia, Carpinus betulus, Cornus masas as the dominant vegetation. The climate is sub-Mediterranean with warm summers and an average annual temperature 15 °C ( Vujović et al. 2015, 2023).

In central Italy, Rugiero et al. (2021) showed a statistically significant decline in tortoise sightings through time, and concurrently also a variation in habitat use by tortoises. In all three study areas, it was observed a significant increase of tortoise sighting frequency in the habitat type characterised by high (>taller than 200 cm) shrubby and wooded vegetation. Since Rugiero et al. (2021) analyses revealed no significant change in the habitat type availability by year in each study area, it can be suggested that T. hermanni was increasingly selecting closed vegetation spots throughout the years. Rugiero et al. (2021) hypothesised that this observed trend of shift in habitat selection could be due to lowering their body temperatures to prevent overheating. So, the selection of more covered spots would be a thermal ecology adaptive consequence of the ongoing global warming.

The above-ground activity of this species begins in March and ends in October, with some variations depending on the climatic characteristics of the various sites. During the summer months, its activity can be very reduced (almost an aestivation phase), or limited to twilight and very early morning (5-7 am). In more temperate regions, the eastern subspecies is active in the morning (until noon) and late afternoon (after 5 pm). In Montenegro, during the hot summer they are mostly active in the early morning until 11 am, and after 3 pm (Vujović et al. in prep.).

Mating occurs in April or May and again in July, with males vigorously fighting for the access to females. Females produce one or more clutches of 2-6 eggs per year and lay eggs from mid-May to the beginning of July (reviewed in Stojadinović et al. 2017b). The average size at birth is ~33mm after which growth follows an S-shaped logistic growth curve, with slowly growing hatchlings in the first 3-4 years of life (Arsovski et al. 2018a) and mean annual neonate survival of only 30% (Arsovski et al. 2018b). Survival probability increases gradually until five years of age, when it reaches a plateau at >90%, likely facilitated by a firm shell; growth rate follows a similar trend reaching ~1 cm per year by five years of age and maintaining the rate until sexual maturity. Both sexes mature at about nine to 12 years of age, the males maturing a little younger (Stubbs 1989); however, maturation could occur as early as the age of seven for females and eight for males (Stojadinović 2018). This species is predominantly vegetarian, eating leaves, flowers and fruits of many plant species. In central Italy, France, Macedonia and Serbia, it has been occasionally observed eating on the carcasses of vertebrates (rabbits, rats, lizards, birds (for instance, Turdus merula; S. Caron pers. comm.), including those in advanced decomposition (see Nikolić et al. 2016), and on the carcass of Vipera ammodytes and rock fragments to supply calcium for eggshell and bones development (A. Vujović pers. comm. January 2023).

The age at maturity varies across the range of the species. In Serbia, the minimal recorded maturation age was seven years in females and eight years in males (J. Crnobrnja-Isailović pers. comm. January 2023). In Spain, sexual differences in age at maturity were also observed (six years for males/seven years for females in reintroduced subpopulations, increasing to 8–10 years for males /10–12 years for females in natural subpopulations), maturing earlier after they have been reintroduced (A. Bertolero pers. comm. January 2023). In terms of longevity, survival rates of a least 45–50 years reintroduced individuals, up to 80 years old in wild/natural populations (A. Bertolero pers. comm. January 2023), and Reinke et al. (2022) give a longevity of c. 85 years. In Serbia, an individual has been recorded with a minimum age of 37+ years (J. Crnobrnja-Isailović pers. comm. January 2023). An adult lifespan of 35 to 45 years was estimated from long-term survival analysis, 14 and 28 years (Bertolero et al. 2018). An adult lifespan of, exceptionally, >90 years was estimated in one Menorcan population (2015–2022) from an eight-year short survival study (however, studies of more than 10 years are needed to estimate survival rate variability (Bertolero in press).

A generation length of 21 years has been calculated based on data for Spain (A. Bertolero pers. comm. January 2023), although this is likely to vary across the range of the species.

The main threats include the loss of habitat due to urbanisation and tourist infrastructure development; agricultural expansion and intensification; agrochemicals and other pollution impacts; wildfires; collection for the pet trade and uses; genetic pollution; road mortality; introduced and native (subsidised, e.g. game species, foxes) predators, and potentially disease impacts from released pet tortoises (Stubbs 1989, Willemsen 1995, Ballouard et al. 2022). In Catalonia (Spain) and France, captive individuals are released to avoid prosecution for illegal possession (A. Bertolero pers. comm. January 2023).

Summer fires can deplete the size of whole subpopulations within days: for example, in a coastal locality in central Italy (Castel Fusano, province of Rome), after a single fire event, L. Rugiero and L. Luiselli counted 44 shells of burnt individuals in a single day. The same threat has been recorded in Spain and in France, where direct mortality varied from 18 to 95% according to habitat configuration (J.-M. Ballouard pers. comm. February 2023). Populations are here more significantly impacted by repeated incidences of fire. Couturier et al. (2014) found wildfires to be responsible for declines in abundance of 31% on sites impacted by wildfires compared with unburnt sites on both Corsica and mainland France (Plaine des Maures and Albera) they found that it took more than 50 years after a fire event at sites on Corsica and at Plaine des Maures for population densities to recover to pre-fire levels.

Fire is also a threat in Bulgaria, and in Mediterranean parts of Montenegro and North Macedonia, fire occurrence has increased (A. Golubović pers. comm. January 2023). Fire is likely a general threat across the range of the species, and likely an increasing threat, especially in the more temperate zones, where fires were in the past less common. It may be not so much from the fire intensity, but more that the frequency of fires within and between years, which prevents recruitment (P.P. van Dijk pers. comm. January 2023).

In Montenegro, habitat destruction is the main threat, most notably fire (Vujović et al. 2015, Vujović et al. 2023, A. Vujović pers. comm. January 2023), which occurred frequently throughout the central and southern parts of Montenegro (Pešić et al. 2020). For example, a single fire event that occurred in the Danilovgrad municipality during a field study, killed 22 tortoises, with 34.2% of survivors having burn marks on their shells. After another major fire in August 2021 at Danilovgrad, injuries to several tortoises (nine males and ten females) were registered (A. Vujović pers. comm. January 2023). Analyses were not carried out for other places, because of the lack of data for comparison. Additional threats identified included urban development, road infrastructures and roadkills (Ikovic et al. 2012). Some subpopulations in Budva municipality have been destroyed by urbanisation, or some are pushed to the edge of urbanised areas (R. Meek pers. comm. January 2023).

The collection for use in traditional medicine (Nikolić et al. 2021) and for food may be a threat, at least at the local scale. Road kills may also be a very serious threat. For instance, L. Luiselli and D. Dendi (unpublished observations, 2018–2019) observed 11 juveniles squashed along a 3 km transect of a busy coastal road in Tuscany, in just two days of monitoring. It is assumed that this threat occurs throughout its range. In Spain, this threat is more significant on smaller, rural roads than on larger highways (A. Bertolero pers. comm. January 2023). Collection from the wild is a significant threat in the Balkans, and there is a question over what to do with confiscated/seized animals (A. Golubović pers. comm. January 2023).

In France, feedback from the SOPTOM wildlife care centre (20 years of management) indicates that mechanical maintenance devices (e.g. for fire breaks) and stray dogs are responsible for a significant number of deaths and injuries each year, around 40% each (Gagno et al. 2013), with road mortality accounting for 10% of admissions. Wild Boars, which consume juvenile tortoises and are subject locally to demographic outbreaks, represent a growing threat (J.-M. Ballouard pers. comm. February 2023).

Captive individuals are frequently released into the wild, intentionally or accidentally, where they can settle in novel habitats while carrying pathogens (Tortoise Herpesvirus (TeHV) and Mycoplasma spp.) that may threaten native populations of tortoises (Ballouard et al. 2021). It is estimated that one out of seven gardens would house captive tortoises in the distribution range of mainland France (S. Caron pers. comm.). The worrying presence of herpesvirus was found in three wild subpopulations. A high proportion of hybrids was found among individuals bred in captivity (~ 59%) compared to natural subpopulations (~18%) (Bech et al. 2022).

In Serbia, an increase in the numbers of some predators (Wild Boar and possibly Jackal) could also influence mortality rates of Hermann’s Tortoise at local scales, and the future proposed development of new mining (mineral) sites, covering perhaps ca.70% of the country is a significant threat (J. Crnobrnja-Isailović pers. comm. January 2023).

Hermann's tortoises are often viewed as a potential domestic companion by the public and is commonly adopted as a pet (Ballouard et al. 2021). Large numbers of animals are captive-bred by hobbyists and distributed within the hobbyist community. It cannot be excluded that some of these animals are wild-caught despite being officially declared as captive-born, and the collection and breeding of tortoises from the local wild subpopulations occurs on some Italian islands (Pantelleria and Linosa, Lo Cascio and Sciberras 2020).

In Serbia, the shell and other body parts (Nikolić 2015, Nikolić et al. 2021) is used in folk medicine (e.g. to promote longevity and for medicinal use). It is difficult to get good information on the current extent of the impact of this use on wild animals.

In Montenegro, the illegal trade of this species was more common a few decades ago. Now collecting and selling are still recorded but in a significantly smaller volume, mainly because of legal protection and control at the border. During the year 2019, it was reported an attempted illegal removal of 18 individuals of this species registered by the Customs office at Dobrakovo. But unofficially there is information from other countries about the illegal import of individuals from Montenegro.

Concerning North Macedonia, the Red Data Book of Fauna of North Macedonia states: “Ljubisavljević et al. (2011) reported ~2,000,000,000 exported tortoises from Yugoslavia in 41 years, whereas 2017 and 2016 reports from the Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning of North Macedonia testify to 35,147 and 25,250 exported Hermann’s tortoises from the country, respectively. CITES reports from earlier years broadly corroborate these notions (e.g. 31,522 and 25,946 individuals in 2016 and 2015, respectively [acquired from https://trade.cites.org/en/cites_trade])". It should also be considered that, on top of this, North Macedonia has six operational tortoise farms, all of which breed and export Hermann’s tortoises across the world. Some, but not sufficient control is imposed, and having in mind that there is no way of identifying wild-caught from farm-born individuals among confiscated tortoises, we must acknowledge that legal tortoise farms can easily be used as platforms that facilitate the export of wild-caught individuals (the issue is discussed at more length and concerning the whole of the western Balkans in Nikolić et al. 2018). Larger individuals attain much better prices and Canada and the USA do not import individuals smaller than 10 cm (personal communication from farmers) at such a slow growth rate (adult size takes upwards of eight years of growth) the incentive to collect this easily harvestable species from the wild is clear.

There is also consumption for food in Spain (A. Bertolero pers. comm. January 2023).

In past centuries, this species was consumed regularly in Italy, France, Greece and all throughout the Mediterranean Basin. Its meat was also allowed by the Catholic church during the periods in which other meat types (cow, pork, etc) were banned for religious reasons. It can be speculated that the massive consumption of these tortoises for food has contributed substantially to the decline in abundance of their natural populations in the past.

The species is included in CITES Appendix II and in Annex A of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 338/97, and is also present on the Bern Convention and the EU Habitats Directive (Annex II and IV).

The species was last assessed globally for the IUCN Red List as Near Threatened (van Dijk et al. 2004). Hermann’s Tortoise is considered EN in the national Red Lists of Romania (Botnariuc and Tatole 2005), Bulgaria (Beshkov 2011), and Italy (A2cde; Andreone et al. 2013), VU in the Bosnian Federation (Lelo et al. 2016), North Macedonia (Sterijovski and Arsovski 2020) and France, NT in Croatia (Jelić et al. 2012), Serbia (Tomović et al. 2015), Albania (Anonymous 2013) and Greece (Legakis and Maragou 2009; C. Papoutsakis pers. comm. 2023, draft national Red List reassessment); it is assigned as “Protected” in Montenegro (Gvozdenović and Iković 2022) and as “Strictly Protected” in the Republic of Srpska (encompassing parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina; Službeni glasnik Republike Srpske 65/20). The species is EN in Italy (A2cde; Andreone et al. 2013).

The species occurs in numerous protected areas throughout most of the species' range; the designations of 654 Natura 2000 sites mention this tortoise (EEA 2022).

In Italy and Spain, the species is protected through the following national and regional legislation. In detail, concerning Spain:

State-level
— Ley orgánica 42/2007, of December 13 (BOE 299, de 14.12.2007) del patrimonio natural y la biodiversidad (“Natural Heritage and Biodiversity Organic Law”). Annex II and Annex V.
— Catálogo Nacional de Especies Amenazadas (modification of Royal Decree 439/90, Government of Spain): Endangered.

Catalonian regional law protection
— Decree 172/2022, of September 20, on the Catalog of threatened native wildlife and protection and conservation measures for protected native wildlife. Category: Endangered
— Legislative Decree 2/2008, of April 15. Law of animal protection. Annex protected species.

Balearic Island law protection
— Decree 75/2005 (July 8), Catálogo Balear de Especies Amenazadas y de Especial Protección, las Áreas Biológicas Críticas y el Consejo Asesor de Fauna y Flora de las Illes Balears (BOIB nº. 106 de 16/07/2005).

In France, the following national legislation is relevant:
— Order of 08 January 2021 providing the list of amphibians and reptiles protected throughout the territory and procedures for their protection.
— Order of 08 October 2018 setting the general rules for the hobby breeding of animals of non-domestic species.
— Order of 08 October 2018 setting the conditions for authorizing the keeping of animals of certain non-domestic species in establishments for the commercial breeding, sale, rental, transit or public display of animals of non-domestic species. Order of 6 January 2020 setting the list of animal and plant species whose protection can only be derogated from after consulting the National Council for the Protection of Nature.

In Italy, the species is fully protected by law. Wild individuals cannot be captured, and no individuals can be kept in captivity or sold without appropriate CITES certifications of captive-born origin.

There are conservation programs for this tortoise in France (National Action Plan 2017–2026), Spain and Italy. The species has been the focus of seven conservation projects in the Balkans funded by The Rufford Foundation. For example, in Serbia and Montenegro, education and awareness raising amongst local communities were conducted.

The species and its habitats has been the focus of EU LIFE grants. In Italy and Greece, the LIFEPRIMED (Restoration, management and valorisation of PRIority habitats of Mediterranean coastal areas; LIFE17 NAT/GR/000511; 2018-2023) focuses on the coastal habitats of the species. In southeastern France, the LIFE+ Tortue d'Hermann (Towards an integrative management in favour of the terrestrial tortoises in Var – Creating tools for the managers of natural habitats in Europe; LIFE08 NAT/F/000475; 2010-2014) project aimed to maintain and increase the current fragmented subpopulations of Hermann’s Tortoise through improved management and protection practices.

In France, in order to offer practical responses required to bolster residual populations that were notably impacted by fire, assessment of releasing strategies and experiment methodologies are currently performed (e.g. Pille et al. 2018). Rescued individuals from habitat management can be used to reinforce other populations or repopulate favourable areas (Caron et al. 2013). Head-starting programs also represent a promising strategy to restore populations (Caron et al. 2021, Ballouard et al. in press). Other conservation management implies providing solutions at a local level (manual land-clearing, pastoralism, controlled winter burning, training and restraint of domestic dogs, control of game fauna and of collection for pets (Livoreil 2009).

In Türkiye, Testudo hermanni have been protected in the context of the Bern Convention and CITES. Furthermore, all reptiles including tortoises are included in the national hunting law.

In Montenegro, The Rufford Foundation small grants financed projects for the conservation of this species (2016). This species does not yet have an official status of the national Red List, but it is on the List of protected plants and animals of Montenegro (“Official Gazette of RM”, No. 76/06). This species does not yet have an official status of the national Red List. However, it is not yet known whether these trends do occur at a global scale in Europe, and there are many abundant populations all throughout the range. There is a need for continued and expanded long-term population monitoring. Collection from the wild is a significant threat in the Balkans and there is a need for improved implementation of legislation, and research into the placement of confiscated specimens (A. Golubović pers. comm. January 2023).