Psittacula alexandri is a widespread species that occurs in several different habitat types, including highly modified areas. However, the species is targeted for trade almost everywhere is occurs, and trade of the species is reportedly causing declines in several regions, most acutely in Indonesia. Although there has been roughly 16% of forest loss over the last three-generations, the pervasive impacts of trade suggest population declines in the range of 20-29% and the species is consequentially listed as Near Threatened.

Psittacula alexandri occurs in south and south-east Asia, from northern and eastern India (including the Andaman Islands), Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh, ranging through Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Viet Nam and southern China (including Hainan), and on Sumatra, Java, Bali, and occasionally southern Kalimantan, as well as the islands Karimunjawa, Kangean, Simeulue, Nias, Lasia, and Babi, Indonesia (Juniper and Parr 1998, Collar et al. 2020). Also occurs as a non-native species in high abundance on Singapore (Neo 2012, eBird 2024) and Peninsular Malaysia (eBird 2024).

Psittacula alexandri is considered common across most of its range, however has undergone declines in Thailand, Lao PDR, Hainan (China) and more recently in Indonesia (Juniper and Parr 1998, Collar et al. 2020, Lewthwaite et al. 2021, Timmins et al. in press). However, the global population has not been quantified, nor have there been any surveys which allow an estimation of the population. Therefore, the population size is unknown.

P. alexandri utilises a range of habitats, which may differ between regions, such as moist deciduous forest, secondary growth, dry forest, mangroves, teak and coconut plantations, woodlands adjacent cultivation and villages, and parks and urban areas (Juniper and Parr 1998, Collar et al 2020). It is generally found in the lowlands, below 2,000 m, but rarely occurs above 345 m in Nepal (Juniper and Parr 1998). In the Himalayan region, it avoids dense evergreen forest (Juniper and Parr 1998). Often seen in flocks of 6-10 birds, and occasionally flocks of 50, but may congregate in the thousands where suitable food is available (Juniper and Parr 1998). Will feed on wild and cultivated fruits, berries, flowers, nectar, nuts and seeds, leaves and cereals such as rice and maize, and frequently causes damage to crops (Juniper and Parr 1998).

The most prevalent threat to P. alexandri is the cage bird trade. Lowland species such as P. alexandri are also at increased risk from habitat loss as these areas are increasingly converted for cultivation, plantations, and timer crops (Snyder et al. 2000). As the human population in Indonesia has increased, capturing of parrots for the domestic and international trade, as well as sport hunting, has increased in prevalence (Snyder et al. 2000). The species is heavily traded across its entire range (Collar et al. 2020), and trade is heavily linked to declines in Indonesia (Snyder et al. 2000, Eaton et al. 2015, Collar et al. 2020), and Lao PDR (Duckworth et al. 1999, Timmins 2014, Collar et al. 2020, Timmins et al. in press). Specifically, the high export of the species from the Kangean Island has caused considerable declines in the population of the subspecies kangeanensis, and with cumulative impacts of habitat degradation, may result in the extinction of the endemic subspecies in the future (Berryman et al. 2024).

Additionally, although the species utilises secondary regrowth, as well as teak and coconut plantations, rural gardens, parks and urban areas (Juniper and Parr 1998, Neo 2012, Collar et al. 2020), forest loss and degradation is still likely to threaten the species by reducing nest site availability. The species nests in natural and excavated hollows (Juniper and Parr 1998, Namwong and Gale 2015), generally in taller, healthier trees (Namwong and Gale 2015), which are more abundant in remnant forest. The replacement rate of nesting trees lost by disturbance is likely slow. Observations of cavity excavation by any species was very rarely seen over five years of surveys of nesting birds in western Thailand, suggesting that cavity production is slow (Namwong and Gale 2015). The species largely uses cavities excavated by woodpeckers and barbets, so the nest site availability for P. alexandri will in part be dependent on the population trends of such species (Namwong and Gale 2015).

As the human population in Indonesia has increased, capturing of parrots for the domestic and international trade has increased in prevalence (Snyder et al. 2000). Indeed, the species is rarely recorded on Sumatra, and appears only a sporadic visitor to Kalimantan (eBird 2024), as well as now being considered rare on Java and Bali as a result of the cage bird trade (Snyder et al. 2000, Eaton et al. 2015, Collar et al. 2020). The species is traded online (Okarda et al. 2022) as well as in markets (e.g. Shepherd 2006) in Indonesia, and in Medan, market trade appears to have increased (Harris et al. 2015). The species also appears to be traded between islands, being shipped to Sumatra and Sulawesi (TRAFFIC 2024). Several subspecies confined to smaller islands may now be in danger of becoming extinct. Subspecies perionca on Nias Island (Collar et al. 2020) and dammermani on Karimunjawa Island are now considered rare (Susanto 2012 in Eaton et al. 2015). Trapping of the endemic subspecies kangeanensis on the Kangean Islands is suggested as the principal cause of declines on Kangean, where the species is exported to mainland Java (Berryman et al. 2024).

Trade is not confined to Indonesia and appears to in part be responsible for declines of the population in Thailand (Collar et al. 2020). Sunday market surveys in Bangkok from 1966 and 1969 recorded close to 9,000 individuals (McClure and Chaiyaphun 1971). Comparatively, a survey of markets over a weekend in Bangkok recorded just four individuals in 2015 (Chng and Eaton 2016). While the length of these surveys differs drastically, the stark difference in numbers suggests the species has very likely declined in Thailand since the 1960s, and trade is likely mostly to blame. Similarly, the species was previously widespread on Lao PDR, but has declined to the extent it is now likely absent from Northern Lao PDR (Duckworth et al. 1999, Timmins 2014, Collar et al. 2020, Timmins et al. in press). The declines in Lao PDR are attributed to the well-established parakeet trade in the country, as well as general persecution (Timmins et al. in press). Further, the species has been recorded in online markets in Viet Nam (Leupen et al. 2022) and was the most recorded native species (133 individuals recorded across 12 separate shops) during surveys over three days in 2016 of all known vendors in Ha Noi and Ho Chi Minh City (Eaton et al. 2017). Over 3,500 individuals, including adults, nestlings and young, were have also been recorded during the Pagoda Festival in Shwesettaw Wildlife Area in Myanmar (Khaing 2019). The species has declined substantially in Hainan due in part to heavy trade in the 1960s (Lewthwaite et al. 2021) and it is also reportedly targeted for the cage bird trade in Bangladesh (Khaing 2019, TRAFFIC 2024), India (Poonia et al. 2022, TRAFFIC 2024), and Nepal (Thapa and Thakuri 2009 in Khaing 2019). International trade of the species is also a likely driver of declines, with over one hundred birds seized at the Myanmar border with Yunnan Province, China (Yi-Ming et al. 2000), and two birds seized from the Thai-Lao PDR border (TRAFFIC 2024). In China, over 50 individuals, including nestlings, were recorded in 2014-2015 surveys in Guiyang (Dai and Zhang 2017) and one individual was seized from a shop in 2014 in Wuhan (TRAFFIC 2024), both incidents outside of the species’ current known range. A total of 66,601 live birds were recorded for international trade between 1987 and 1991, predominantly coming from Vietnam (42%), Indonesia (27%) and India (15%), and chiefly going to Singapore (28%), Japan (21%) and USA (12%; Collar et al. 2020).

The value of P. alexandri individuals has been reported as 28-126 USD (Okarda et al. 2022) and 400.000-700.000 Indonesian Rupiah (Putri et al. 2021) in Indonesia, 1,500 Thai Bhat (Thailand, Chng and Eaton 2016), and 17-22 USD (Vietnam, Leupen et al. 2022).

Conservation Actions Underway
Listed in CITES Appendix II and occurs in numerous protected areas; otherwise no dedicated conservation action is reported.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Conduct regular range-wide surveys to monitor population trends and to determine the population size and number of sub-populations. Surveys of endemic subspecies on Islands are important to understand the risk of local extinctions in these areas. Determine the impact that habitat loss and degradation has on nest-site availability and how this may impact the reproductive success of the population/sub-populations. Quantify the level of trade and impacts of trapping on the population trend. Conduct awareness-raising activities to discourage trapping. Research the feasibility of establishing a captive-breeding program to support the recovery on the Kangean Islands of the endemic taxon kangeanensis (Berryman et al. 2024).