The 1997 IUCN Caprinae Action Plan and the previous IUCN Red List of Threatened Species assessment (Valdez 2008) list one species, Ovis orientalis, for both Mouflon and urial. The delegates of the Workshop on Caprinae Taxonomy (IUCN/SSC Caprinae Specialist Group 2000) disagreed with such classification, partly because of differences in the number of chromosomes (i.e., Mouflon 54 and Urial 58), and concluded that Mouflon and Urial are different species. A molecular study (Rezaei et al. 2010) showed that the individuals identified as Mouflon and Urial form two strongly monophyletic groups. Individuals sampled from hybrid populations appear either in the clade of urial or in that of Mouflon. Considering these two taxa as distinct species would be coherent with the morphological and genetic differences between them, as well as, their past evolutionary divergence, and the occurrence of a hybrid zone (Rezaei et al. 2010).

The name O. orientalis has first been used to designate the hybrid red sheep, found in Iran (listed as O. o. orientalis on page 13 of the IUCN Caprinae Action Plan). This sheep is considered a hybrid form, the result of interbreeding of Mouflon and Urial. Therefore, the name O. orientalis is nomen nudum. Following on chronology, the next valid name for the Mouflon should be O. gmelini Blyth, 1841; and for the urial it is O. vignei Blyth, 1841. Both CITES and the International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation (CIC) use O. gmelini for Mouflon and O. vignei for the urial.

There are 3 to 5 autochthonous wild subspecies of Mouflon; (IUCN/SSC Caprinae Specialist Group 2000) out of which only one subspecies occurs in Europe. The Cyprus Mouflon, introduced in prehistoric times, might be a separate subspecies O. g. ophion. “Wild sheep” found on Mediterranean islands are generally recognized to have been introduced by humans (Shackleton 1997, Masseti 1998, Wilson and Reeder 2005), and genetic and archaeo-zoological studies suggest that they are feral populations of ancient domestic stocks (e.g., Vigne 1994, Hiendleder et al. 2002). Consequently, such taxa should be included in the respective domestic species (O. aries) (Gentry et al. 1996, Gentry et al. 2004, Gippoliti and Amori 2004) and not as subspecies of the wild taxon O. gmelini. However, Cyprus Mouflon, in contrast to Corsican and Sardinian Mouflons, may originate from introduced wild stock, Iran representing the most credited region as the source for its ancient introduction to Cyprus, and thus not be a feral sheep (Guerrini et al. 2015). Also, Sanna et al. (2015) noted high genetic distance observed between the Cyprus Mouflon and other (domestic) sheep haplogroups, including Corsican and Sardinian Mouflons and their introduced descendants in mainland Europe, but found the Cyprus Mouflon grouping exclusively with Anatolian Mouflon O. g. gmelini [anatolica]. Hiendleder et al. (2002) suggested that likely candidates for truly wild ancestors of domestic sheep are Mouflon populations found in Turkey and western Iran; thus genetic differentiation of feral descendants of early domesticated from descendants of true wild sheep is difficult. Therefore, we include O. g. ophion in this assessment, because of being possibly a wild, but not a feral sheep.

European regional assessment: Endangered (EN)
EU 27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

In Europe, Mouflon in the sense of this assessment is only found in Cyprus. In contrast, the so-called European Mouflons are considered as descendants of feral sheep and thus are not considered as wild species. Mouflon is assessed as Endangered C1+2a(ii), in both the European and EU 27 regions, because there are less than 2,500 mature individuals (1365-2011), and more than 20% continuing decline is estimated within the past two generations (set at 16 years) and 100% of mature individuals are in one subpopulation. We assume that mature individuals are 60% of the reported population size.

In Europe, Mouflon – with the exception of the Mouflons of domestic origin on Corsica and Sardinia introduced to many European countries – are only found in Cyprus. The Cyprus Mouflon had been restricted to the 620 km² Pafos Forest in Cyprus (Hadjisterkotis 2001). During the 2010s, Cyprus Mouflon have expanded their range from their Pafos Forest stronghold, where the population size declined, eastwards to areas of Troodos National Forest and southeast and southwest to Pafos and Limassol districts. Also, small groups are found in areas which are not controlled by the Cyprus Government in the northern periphery of Pafos Forest, including the UN-patrolled “Buffer” zone (Kassinis 2022).

Outside the European region the species is found in Armenia, southern Azerbaijan, northern Iraq, southern and western Iran, and eastern Türkiye with several isolated populations in central Türkiye (Michel and Ghoddousi 2020). However, the Cyprus population is unique as it represents a separate and endemic subspecies and an island population.

The population estimate in 1999 was 3072 +/- 691 animals (Kassinis and Papageorgiou 2000). Between the years of 2001-2003 there was an outbreak of Infectious Keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) with a Mouflon population decline of 20% in 2003 (Kassinis 2005). In the autumn of 2010, population estimate was 2,574 +/- 599 animals (Kassinis et al. 2012). For the years after, no estimates are available, but the directly recorded numbers continuously declined from 581 in 2010 to 407 in 2015. The most recent estimate from 2022 is 2,814 +/- 539 total individuals (Kassinis 2022). The number of mature individuals is estimated to be approximately 1,688 and an overall 20% decline in the past two generations is estimated.

The global population of this species may be about 26,500 (16,000 mature individuals) (Michel and Ghoddousi 2020), but the assessed population represents a subspecies endemic to Cyprus.

Mouflon inhabit the mountainous landscapes of Cyprus in and around Pafos Forest. Their suitable habitat contains hills, undulating terrain and gentle slopes but also cliffs. While during the last decade, Mouflon have expanded their range beyond Pafos Forest, their numbers declined within forest areas where the habitat became too dense for them (Kassinis 2022). The ecology of the species follows general patterns of wild sheep with rams and ewes/lambs being in distinct groups except during the rut (Maisels 1990). The average herd size is smaller than other Caprinae (two to three individuals) and is often sexually segregated during spring and summer Kassinis and Papageorgiou (2000). Mouflon move, forage, and visit water points at night during warm weather. They are sexually dimorphic, non-territorial and promiscuous. The main predators are feral dogs Canis familiaris.

Livestock increases both in number and in area, foraging within Mouflon range in Cyprus especially within the UN-patrolled “Buffer” zone in the northern edge of the Pafos Forest and at the south east edge of the forest boundaries where large numbers of goats are present. Consequently, the biggest threat affecting the Mouflon population in Cyprus is livestock intrusion into the Mouflon range in the forest periphery and recently even within state forest boundaries affecting Mouflon through trophic competition, displacement and disease transmission (Kapnisis et al. 2022). Feral dogs cause substantial predation mortality and disturbance.

Poaching is another important mortality factor (Kassinis et al. 2016). Road construction causes habitat fragmentation and collisions with vehicles. Reforestation of burned areas and/or planting of pine, Pinus sp., monocultures with terracing make habitat unsuitable for Mouflon. Due to reforestation, forest habitat becomes too dense in several areas, resulting in Mouflon numbers declining. Long periods of drought conditions cause a lack of surface water in several areas within the Mouflon’s range during hot periods (Eliades et al. 2016, Kassinis 2022). Plans for future development of solar plants and large quarries within the Mouflon range threaten large parts of its habitat. Climate change is also a threat to this species as water shortage is more frequent due to a decline in precipitation and rising temperatures. This also affects the available annual forage and other edible vegetation.

There is no detailed information on the use or trade of this species.

In Cyprus, the Game and Fauna Service of the Ministry of Interior is responsible for Mouflon conservation. Mouflon is a strictly protected species both through its inclusion in the European Union Habitats Directive 92/43 (Annexes ΙΙ and IV) but also through the national legislation (Law 152(Ι) of 2003-2015).

A species management plan has been in place since 1996 and has been updated in 2011. Key activities include:

1. Law enforcement (regular patrols to prevent and combat poaching);
2. Habitat improvements through 150 artificial watering points to provide water during the long, hot periods, especially in areas with no surface water, annual maintenance of natural springs and sips improve the supply of free-standing water, and through food plots with winter cereals and forest clearings to increase Mouflon forage areas;
3. Population monitoring (fall counts and lamb surveys every April-May);
4. Inspection of agricultural damage and provision of advice to decrease it, and
5. Health monitoring in close cooperation with the Department of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Environment (N. Kassinis, pers. comm. 2016 and presentation at the WCMU 2016 in Nicosia).

Kassinis (2022) further recommends: The expansion of the Mouflon protected area through the unification of sites and their expansion to cover areas of high Mouflon densities outside Pafos forest; and monitoring through camera traps including the use of water points.

The Cyprus Mouflon is listed in CITES Appendix I (valid from 26 November 2019) as “Ovis gmelini (only the population of Cyprus; no other population is included in the Appendices)”. O. g. ophion is listed in Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Guerrini et al. (2015) suggest that until definitive light can be shed on taxonomically heterogeneous Near-Eastern Mouflons, the Mouflon of Cyprus should be unvaryingly acknowledged as subspecies ophion not to impair conservation in the country where it resides. In light of the genetic divergence disclosed between Cyprus and European Mouflon, they furthermore recommended to ban the importation of any Mouflon into Cyprus to preserve the integrity of the island population. Population monitoring is recommended.