Grubb (2005) recognized Eurasian Elk (Alces alces) and Moose (Alces americanus) as distinct species, citing sources that documented differences in karyotype, body dimensions and proportions, form of premaxilla, coloration, and structure and dimensions of antlers (Geist 1998, Boyeskorov 1999). There is still some debate surrounding whether Moose comprise one or two species. Groves and Grubb (1987) called them "semi-species". Boeskorov (1997) proposed that the chromosomal races of Alces alces were different species, however, Bowyer et al. (2000) cautioned that chromosome numbers might be a poor designator of species among large mammals. Based on cited sources that documented differences between Eurasian Elk and Moose, Geist (1998) recommended separation at the subspecies level (i.e., Alces alces alces Linneaus, 1758 and Alces alces americanus Clinton, 1822). Geist (1998) noted a broad zone of hybridization between the two forms in central and eastern Siberia but Boeskorov (2003) identifies the Yenisei River as the boundary between the ranges of the two putative species. There are no differences in antler morphology on either side of the river, however, suggesting substantial gene flow (Koleznikov and Kozlovskii 2014). Moreover, genetic analyses have generally supported distinguishing the two at the subspecific level (Hundertmark et al. 2002 a,b; Udina et al. 2002; Hundertmark and Bowyer 2004); further research is needed before a consensus would support species-level classification.

Hundertmark et al. (2002b) report that analysis of mtDNA revealed three haplogroups, one entirely Asian, one primarily European and one primarily North American. Eight extant subspecies are recognised here:
A. a. alces - Scandinavia, Finland, Baltic states and Poland E to Yenisei River.
A. a. americana - E Canada (C Ontario to Newfoundland).
A. a. andersoni - British Colombia to Minnesota and Ontario.
A. a. buturlini - NE Siberia and Kamchatka.
A. a. cameloides - N Mongolia, Ussuriland, N Manchuria.
A. a. gigas - Alaska and Yukon.
A. a. pfizenmayeri - C Siberia and Stanovoy and Cherskiy Mountains.
A. a. shirasi - S Alberta to Wyoming and Utah.

European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

The Elk (Alces alces) is widespread across northern parts of the European region with large and still increasing subpopulations overall. It is assessed as Least Concern for both Europe and for the EU27 Member States as it is still very widespread and extremely abundant despite hunting pressure in parts of its range. It is expanding its range in places and it thrives in secondary habitat. There are no widespread significant threats, though climate change has the potential to impact the subpopulations across parts of the European region. Monitoring of long-term population trends is required, and conservation efforts should focus on supporting central European subpopulations through promoting habitat connectivity.

In Europe, the Elk has a continuous distribution extending through Norway, Sweden (absent from Gotland), Finland, the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), European Russia, Belarus, Poland and northern Ukraine. Formerly, three isolated subpopulations were reported in southern Czechia (Hundertmark 2016), but at present, only one subpopulation is extant, near the Lipno Dam in southern Czechia, with occasional vagrant Elk observed in other areas (Jensen et al. 2020); this subpopulation extends to adjacent parts of Germany and Austria (Janík et al. 2021). In Austria, occasional migrants are recorded as far south as the Danube River (Jensen et al. 2020). There are occasional records from Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia and Moldova (Jensen et al. 2020) (not mapped). In Denmark, Elk immigrate to Zealand from Sweden most years, most recently in 2018, but with no established subpopulation (Aarhus Universitet 2022). It ranges from sea level up to at least 1,500 m in Europe (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).

In northern Eurasia, out of the European region, the range extends eastwards to the Sea of Okhotsk and south to northern Kazakhstan, northern China (northern Xinjiang), and possibly northern Mongolia (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It has been extinct in the Caucasus region since the 19th century (Wilson and Reeder 2005) but has been extending its range southwards along the rivers into the northern Caucasus lowlands.

In North America, the species occurs in Alaska and Canada south through the Rocky Mountains, northern Great Lakes, and to New England. The species is estimated to have arrived in North America from Asia about 11,000-14,000 years ago, shortly before flooding of the Bering land bridge (Hundertmark et al. 2002). The species' range has decreased over the past 100 years in the southern boreal forest regions in the eastern provinces of Canada (e.g., Beazley et al. 2006), but has expanded in other areas. In recent decades, it has expanded its range westward into the coastal temperate rainforests of British Columbia and some coastal islands (Darimont et al. 2005). These changes have been due to habitat changes caused by humans in boreal and rainforest ecosystems. The Elk was introduced but since extirpated in New Zealand (Nugent et al. 2001, Boyeskorov 1999, Grubb in Wilson and Reeder 2005).

Hundertmark (2016) considered that over the previous 50 years, the European population had increased dramatically, and estimated a total European population of at least 440,000 individuals, primarily based on data from 2010 and earlier. Within this timeframe, there had been significant declines in the early 1990's, followed by ongoing increases in many countries (e,g., Poland, Estonia, Latvia, and to a lesser degree in Lithuania; Apollonio et al. 2010, Jensen et al. 2020, Niedziałkowska et al. 2022). Numbers have increased markedly in Scandinavia in recent decades. Population estimates (Hundertmark 2016) for European countries include the following: Czechia - maximum of 50 animals, Estonia - 10,000 individuals, Finland - at least 110,000 individuals, Poland - 2,800 individuals, and Sweden - 340,000 individuals (Pielowski and Jaworski 2005, Ruusila and Kojola 2010).

European populations show fluctuations over a multi-year cycle (Bauer and Nygrén 1999), but this is not considered severe fluctuation and the European subpopulations are not severely fragmented.

Overall, the population in Europe is considered to still be increasing, however, it is apparent that the situation varies between countries. In Finland, modelled data (J. Pusenius pers. comm. July 2023) from 2000 to 2022 show a significant decline over the period 2001 to 2012 (143,611 individuals to 76,578), followed by an increase to 2017, then a decline to 66,664 individuals in 2022. It should be noted, however, that the decline is due to the intentional management of the subpopulation in order to meet the density goals set in the different elkmanagement areas of Finland, although a declining recruitment trend has also been identified (J. Pusenius pers. comm. July 2023).

In Poland, the population size increased from <3,000 individuals to an estimated 21,323 individuals by 2017 (Dziki-Michalska et al. 2019). In Sweden, Kalén et al. (2022) used citizen science data (primarily hunter observations) to estimate a total pre-hunt population of 311,000 individuals (228,000 post-hunt) in 2020 (i.e. 27% of the summer population was harvested), with a decline in post-hunt abundance of 15% between 2012 and 2020, and Holmes et al. (2021) found that early calf recruitment has declined throughout Sweden and calf mass has also declined, particularly in central and southern Sweden. In contrast, Kärrman (2019) found a continuous population increase over the period 2005-2017 in Sweden.

With respect to the population situation in European Russia, Baskin (2009) noted that there had been a past decline (an estimated decline of >50% over the period 1990-2002) in European Russia, however, the population size of A.a. alces in European Russia was still estimated to be significant in 2007, at 283,800, and the overall population across Russia as a whole exceeds one million individuals, with ongoing population growth (O. Pereladova pers. comm. 2023).

Following an increase up until c. 2010, the small Central Europe (Czechia/Austria/Germany) subpopulation has undergone a decline since around 2013; the subpopulation is small (possibly <20 individuals) and isolated (Janík et al. 2021).

Elk are found in a range of woodland habitats, both coniferous and broadleaved, from the tundra and taiga southwards through boreal to temperate zones. This species prefers a mosaic of second-growth boreal forest, openings, swamps, lakes and wetlands. It thrives in secondary growth, and its population expansion in Scandinavia has been linked to the replacement of natural taiga forest by secondary woodland after logging (Bauer and Nygrén 1999). It is also found in open country in lowlands and mountains, including farmland, if there is forest nearby. Elk also utilise lakes shores and seashore areas. The species avoids hot summer conditions by utilizing dense shade or bodies of water. It feeds on vegetative parts of various broadleaf trees, preferring birch, ashes and willow in the spring and summer and the twigs of these species as well as of fir, alpine, and juniper in the autumn and winter. It also eats shrubs, such as blueberry and heather, dwarf shrubs, herbs, and aquatic plants and can be a pest of agriculture and forestry in at least parts of its range (Ruusila and Kojola 2010, Ma Yiqing pers. comm.).

Females become sexually mature after two years, with males maturing at four years (but usually do not have the opportunity to mate until age 6-8; SLU Artdatabanken 2020), and the maximum life span is about 20 years (Peterson 1977). It is active throughout the day and night, although there are peaks at dawn and especially at dusk.

Populations can be limited or regulated by complex interactions of ecological factors that vary from population to population, or ecosystem to ecosystem. Winter weather (snow accumulation) may strongly affect subpopulations, even more so than wolf density (Mech et al. 1987); however, Messier (1991) found that competition for food, but not wolf predation and snow, had a regulatory impact on the species. Van Ballenberghie and Ballard (1994) found that in some naturally regulated ecosystems, predation by bears and wolves often is limiting and may be regulating under certain conditions. Messier (1994) developed population models of Elk-Wolf interactions. Under favourable conditions, populations are capable of large annual increases (20-25%) in population size.

The lack of habitat connectivity is probably the most significant limitation on the recovery of Elk subpopulations in Central Europe (Bluhm et al. 2023).

Threats to the status of the Alces alces populations are primarily human-caused habitat alteration, primarily forestry and agricultural management. In most European range states, subpopulations are controlled to prevent damage to forestry and arable crops (Bauer and Nygrén 1999), and also directly taken for meat and recreational hunting.

Climate change may be having an impact. Holmes et al. (2021) reported declining calf recruitment in southern Swedish subpopulations and linked this to hotter and drier springs, and deeper snow depths.

The small central Europe subpopulation has undergone a decline, with the mortality due to the loss of habitat connectivity, and human interactions including wildlife-vehicle collisions and legal culling or illegal poaching (Janík et al. 2021).

A wasting disease was reported first in cervid populations of North America and its origins in Europe remain poorly understood (Frank 2004), but it is not considered to be a serious problem for the species as a whole at present. A prion protein infection (cervid Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy, TSE) was first reported in Norway in 2016 (Pirisinu et al. 2018), and in Finland (close to the Russia border) in 2018 (Defra 2018). The first case in Sweden was diagnosed in 2019, with a further three cases recorded to 2020 (National Veterinary Institute). Fifteen cases in total had been recorded to 2022, and a Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) surveillance programme has been proposed (EFSA BIOHAZ 2023).

The Elk is utilised as a game (hunting) species throughout much of its northern European range, and subpopulations are managed in each country. For example, in Finland, there were c.116,000 registered Elk hunters in 2021, with 42,484 animals harvested (Luke 2022), whilst in Norway, 27,487 individuals were hunted in the 2022-2023 hunting year, a decrease of just over 10% from the 2018-2019 period (Statistisk sentralbyrå).

Animals are harvested for their meat, horns, and hide, with uses as human and animal feed, and in the production of decorative items. Attempts at domestication and commercial farming of Elk have been attempted in the former USSR but these had been unsuccessful and any captive breeding is probably at the very small scale (N. Werner pers. comm. 2023)

This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in a large number of protected areas across its range (Wemmer 1998, European mammal assessment workshop 2006). The species is subject to intense management in some countries through hunting quotas (e.g. in Finland: Ruusila and Kojola 2010). It is protected under national legislation in a number of countries (e.g. Germany). In Poland, a moratorium (year-round protection) on harvesting the species has been in force since 2001, with a review underway to consider whether hunting should be allowed based on population size increase (Dziki-Michalska et al. 2019).

The species is listed as Least Concern in Estonia (eElurikkus 2019), Norway (Artsdatabanken 2021), Sweden (SLU Artdatabanken 2020), and Finland (Hyvärinen et al. 2019). The species was not evaluated for Latvia (considered Least Concern; D. Telnov pers. comm. 2023) and Lithuania.

The major conservation concern is extensive regional and landscape scale habitat change. Although Ferguson et al. (2000) did not analyse populations considered to be at risk, they identified populations occurring in areas with low primary productivity and low natural predation, show the least persistence and require the greatest conservation effort. Both low primary productivity and predation usually occur where humans have caused extensive habitat disturbance. This species thrives where protected from overkill by humans or predators.