The Sicilian populations are considered by some authors as a distinct species, Emys trinacris, and this approach is followed by Turtle Taxonomy Working Group (TTWG et al. 2021). However, this view is currently debated and this may just be a subspecies of E. orbicularis.

TTWG et al. (2021) accept seven subspecies of E. orbicularis, with numerous taxonomically unplaced subpopulations, with several former subspecies now synonymised with others;

— Emys orbicularis ssp. orbicularis (Linnaeus, 1758).
— Emys orbicularis ssp. eiselti Fritz, Baran, Budak & Amthauer, 1998.
— Emys orbicularis ssp. galloitalica Fritz, 1995.
— Emys orbicularis ssp. hellenica Valenciennes in Bibron & Bory de Saint-Vicent, 1832.
— Emys orbicularis ssp. ingauna Jesu, Piombo, Salvidio, Lamagni, Ortale & Genta, 2004.
— Emys orbicularis ssp. occidentalis Fritz, 1993.
— Emys orbicularis ssp. persica Eichwald, 1831.

European regional assessment: Near Threatened (NT)
EU 27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

The European Pond Turtle is assessed as Near Threatened at the European level because the species is considered to be in significant decline (but probably at a rate of less than 30% over the past three generation length period (75 years) because of widespread habitat loss and a range of other threats through much of its range, thus making the species close to qualifying for Vulnerable (NT A2bcde).

This species is considered to have declined more significantly in the EU27 Member States and it is assessed as Vulnerable under Criterion A2bcde on the basis of a population decline that is suspected to have exceeded 30% over the past 75 years, with no regional adjustment applied. This is a precautionary assessment as population trend data are lacking for some parts of the EU range, for example, for Greece, and it should be reassessed if these data become available.

Within the European region, this species has a wide but now relatively fragmented distribution. It occurs especially in the Mediterranean region, but also north to central France, northeastern Germany, Poland, Latvia and Belarus, and in the Black Sea and Caspian Sea regions (including European Türkiye. Its distribution is also somewhat complicated by (i) suspected historical and recent human introductions (for a more detailed treatment see Fritz [2001]), and (ii) by its elusiveness, which may considerably bias the perception of its true distribution and abundance. For instance, its presence in several sites in central Italy was only confirmed after several years of sampling and despite considerable field effort in herpetological studies carried out at those sites (D. Capizzi and L. Luiselli pers. comm.). Therefore, it is likely that its distribution appears more fragmented than it really is. In European Russia, it is rather difficult to establish the natural northern border of the range due to numerous cases of release of wild-caught individuals; probably, it passes through the Leningrad, Smolensk and Bryansk regions.

In parts of mainland Italy, for instance in the Po plain, it is very abundant; it is widespread but with local declines, driven by habitat loss. In Sardinia, it seems at least a relatively old reintroduction of the species (Pedall et al. 2011, Vamberger et al. 2015). Indeed, Emys orbicularis from Corsica and Sardinia are not differentiated from continental populations of the subspecies E. o. galloitalica, neither in the mitochondrial nor in the quickly evolving microsatellite markers. As the fossil record argues for a continuous presence of pond turtles on both islands since the Middle Pleistocene, this suggests that the native island populations became extinct and the extant turtles were later introduced by prehistoric settlers. Recent paleontological investigations (see Zoboli et al. 2019, 2022, and literature therein) are providing interesting baseline information testifying for the presence of taxa that are present in Sardinia since a relatively deep past (as Green Toads Bufotes spp., Emys orbicularis, Testudo hermanni, Natrix spp.). Its presence on the island seems to date back to the Early Pleistocene (Biello et al. 2021, Zoboli et al. 2022).

In the Balkans, aquatic habitats are very fragile and susceptible to impacts. In Serbia, in part of the species range, several large infrastructure corridors are planned, which may impact a significant area of habitat; this represented a large part of its range in Serbia (A. Golubović pers. comm. January 2023). A population decline is inferred from this, but there are no population trend data. In North Macedonia, a few subpopulations seem abundant (such as those inhabiting the big tectonic lakes – Ohrid, Prespa and Dojran), but most are seemingly fragmented and in decline due to past and ongoing anthropogenic pressures that impact wetlands and other aquatic habitats across the country (Arsovski and Sterijovski 2023); long-term demographic data is lacking. In Serbia, field studies showed that the AOO is only 250 km². The current AOO was the main reason for the change in Category in Serbia to Near Threatened.

Knowledge of the distribution and conservation status of the European Pond Turtle in Slovenia has increased over the last decade (Krofel et al. 2009, Vamberger 2009, Vamberger and Kos 2011, Grželj and Grželj 2012; Vamberger et al. 2013b, 2015, 2017; Pekolj et al. 2015, Govedič et al. 2016, 2020). Two subspecies of Emys orbicularis are distributed in the country (Vamberger et al. 2013a, 2015); in the coastal region, Emys orbicularis hellenica is present, while in the other parts of Slovenia, Emys orbicularis orbicularis occurs. It is assumed that the two subspecies mix in Vipavska dolina, where turtles with intermediate morphological characteristics are found, but this has never been confirmed genetically (Vamberger et al. 2013a). Detailed studies on the present status, individual numbers and natural history of E. orbicularis are lacking in Slovenia and were undertaken only at Ljubljansko barje (Vamberger and Kos 2011, Vamberger et al. 2017), Prilipe (Govedič et al. 2020), and in Bela krajina (Vamberger et al. 2013b).

In the UK, there are fossil records (Stuart 1979) and it was once considered extinct, but Emys orbicularis has been observed in several localities over the southern half of England (NBN 2021; not included in distribution map), although these may result from random accidental introductions; reintroduction efforts are underway.

In the European region, the subspecies are distributed as follows (see Rhodin et al. 2021):

• Emys orbicularis inguana: coastal northwestern Italy (Liguria).
• Emys orbicularis galloitalica: Mediterranean coastal region from Catalonia (Spain) through southern France and the Tyrrhenian coast of Italy and Sardinia.
• Emys orbicularis hellenica: Adriatic coastal region (Slovenia, Montenegro, Albania, Bosnia, Herzegovina) southwards to Peloponnesus and Boeotia (Greece); possibly including subpopulations of the southern Crimea and western European Türkiye. This includes a subpopulation on the island of Limnos (Greece) reported by Sindaco et al. (2000).
• Emys orbicularis orbicularis: Central Europe, from eastern Germany through Poland, the Baltic States and Russia eastwards to the Aral Sea, as well as central France and the Danube basin; apparently disappeared from the Rhine basin. In Romania, it is widespread up to 900 m asl.
• Emys orbicularis occidentalis: Portugal and Spain, and, out of the European region, Morocco, northern Algeria and northern Tunisia.

The species has been introduced to several European countries, including Sweden, and Luxembourg (European Alien Species Information Network, EASIN).

Out of the European region, the species' range extends eastwards to eastern parts of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea regions (east to Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan, south to most of Anatolia in Türkiye and northwestern Iran), and in coastal northwestern Africa from eastern Morocco to northern Tunisia. Two further subspecies occur out of the European region: Emys orbicularis eiselti (Syria and Türkiye) and Emys orbicularis persica (Azerbaijan, Giorgia, Iran, Golestan, Dagestan. Turkmenistan).

Subpopulations towards the northern extremes of the distribution range in Europe tend to be very small and more fragmented, whereas subpopulations in the Mediterranean and Caucasus regions are generally more abundant e.g., Corsica (Cheylan 1995) and Sardinia (L. Luiselli and M. Capula, unpublished data) and not fragmented. In a large part of Italy, the species has suffered a decline due to the drastic reduction of suitable habitats in the last three generations. French (Servan 1995), Spanish, and at least western Turkish subpopulations were considered to be in decline (Atatur 1995), but data confirming this declining trend are mostly anecdotal.

In the Camargue (France), there is long-term monitoring (e.g. Olivier et al. 2010, Arsovski et al. 2018), also in the Maures (Var-Provence) (Cheylan and Poitevin 1998). The species was abundant in the past (before the 1980s) in the marshes of the Encanyissada Lagoon (Ebro Delta Natural Park; Spain), but only 17 specimens were captured between 2001 and 2010 turtle monitoring program (unpublished data).

Long-term monitoring in Girona (Catalonia, Spain) (Escoriza et al. 2020). In Spain, since 2002 the species has declined in most of their range (Ayres 2015). Most of the populations are fragmented and without connectivity between them. The decline is more accentuated in eastern populations (Catalonia, Valencia and Ebro catchment). The species was common in the Ebro Delta until the 1950s-1970s, however by the early 1990s it had almost disappeared (Bertolero 2000). The southwestern subpopulation was considered in better conditions in the past, but the overexploitation of aquifers and climatic drought threaten many of these populations. For example, sampling presence since 2012 in Sevilla province shows a reduction of 54.5% UTM squares (10x10 km) where it was detected before 2002 (Rodríguez-Rodríguez et al. 2015). The subpopulation in the Doñana National Park may be at risk because most of the area is affected by climatic drought and illegal water catchment for agriculture. Water extraction for surrounding urban areas also affects the aquifer level of the National Park.

In the Balkans, aquatic habitats are very fragile and susceptible to impacts. In Serbia, in part of the species' range, several large infrastructure corridors are planned, which may impact a significant area of habitat; this represented a large part of its range in Serbia (A. Golubović pers. comm. January 2023). A population decline is inferred from this, but there are no population trend data. In North Macedonia, a few subpopulations seem abundant (such as those inhabiting the big tectonic lakes – Ohrid, Prespa and Dojran), but most are seemingly fragmented and on the decline due to past and ongoing anthropogenic pressures that destroy wetlands and other aquatic habitats across the country (Arsovski and Sterijovski 2023); long-term demographic data is lacking.

In parts of mainland Italy, for instance in the Po Plain, it is very abundant; it is widespread but with local declines, driven by habitat loss. In North Macedonia, few populations seem abundant (such as those inhabiting the big tectonic lakes – Ohrid, Prespa and Dojran), but most are seemingly fragmented and on the decline due to past and ongoing anthropogenic pressures that destroy wetlands and other aquatic habitats across the country (Arsovski and Sterijovski 2023); long-term demographic data are lacking.

In Montenegro, because of major anthropogenic pressures, such as polluted water bodies and electro-fishing etc., there are fragmented subpopulations, consisting of small numbers and in some subpopulations mostly adults (Vujović et al. in prep.). Subpopulations are distributed along the coastline and in central Montenegro (Katnić et al. 2017, Iković et al. 2016, Vujović and Harrison-Cripps 2018, Gvozdenović 2021, Gvozdenović and Iković 2022, Mićanović et al. 2022, Vujović et al. in prep.; R. Meek pers. comm. 2023). In Romania, it is widespread and locally abundant, including man-made habitats like irrigation canals (Bîrsan et al. 2017, Cogălniceanu et al. 2013). There are no population size and trend data for Greece (L.K. Koutrouditsou, draft Greek National Red List assessment).

The most stable and numerous subpopulations occur in Southern European Russia (and, out of the region, in Ciscaucasia), and the species is common in Southern European Russia. With the advancement to the north, the number falls and the European Pond Turtle is more susceptible to habitat disturbance.

The number of mature individuals is declining across the European region, and many populations have become extinct. In European Russia, as a result of the introduction of Trachemys scripta and the ongoing development of, especially, coastal territories, a decrease in the population by more than 80% is predicted in the near future over a period of 100 years (Tuniyev 2021). This 80% decline only refers to European Russian subpopulations as the species tends to be more common in the Asian range. Unfortunately, the absence of long-term demographic data from individual subpopulations throughout the range impedes clarifying the actual rate of decline that the species is experiencing, despite the circumstantial evidence, coming from short-term studies, suggests that a decline is really occurring.

The species is probably in significant decline across the European region, but probably at a rate of less than 30% over three generations (generation length = 25 years) because of widespread habitat loss through much of its range. In the EU 27 region, the decline over the past three generation lengths is suspected to exceed 30%.

The European Pond Turtle has variable habitat utilisation across its wide range. It favours freshwater or slightly brackish waterbodies with slow-flowing or standing water, often small-scale, densely vegetated and frequently seasonal, while preferred nesting sites have sandy soil, generally a southerly orientation and certain characteristics with regard to vegetation and insolation (Fritz 2001b, and references therein). In general, the species is quite tolerant of habitat modifications, and can be observed also in suburban and relatively polluted sites. The species has a generalist, omnivorous diet with juveniles being more carnivorous than adults. Aquatic arthropods, small amphibians, fish and crustaceans are its favourite prey items. Mature females produce one, two or in some populations three clutches of about six to nine eggs (extremes one to 16; large clutches tend to correlate with fewer clutches per year). Females may make considerable inter-habitat displacements to reach appropriate nesting sites, and during these "migrations" they can experience considerable mortality on roads. The same may happen to hatchlings when going to their permanent aquatic habitats. Animals reach sexual maturity after about four to ten years, depending on location, with males maturing earlier than females (Fritz 2001b, and references therein).

In Croatia population density has been evaluated for E. o. orbicularis in lakes around Zagreb to 11.8 ind/ha (95% CI 6.5 - 25.4) (D. Jelić pers. comm.). Small isolated subpopulations have been recorded in Adriatic islands (Mljet, Krk, Cres, Pag) but are in decline in all locations (Jelić et al. 2012a). Natural translocation via marine debris has been recorded with animals traveling tens of kilometres, from the estuaries of the Neretva and Bojana rivers to Korčula Island (Jelić et al. 2012b).

In Slovenia, the population density was evaluated only for the Prilipe oxbow lakes to 28 ind/ha (Govedič et al. 2020), the channels at Ljubljansko barje to 16 ind/km², the ponds at Draga pri Igu to 57 ind/km² (Vamberger et al. 2017) and Sečoveljske soline to 48 ind/ha of water surface (Ferjančič and Škornik 2018). The population in Prilipe is estimated at 125 adult and subadult individuals (81–212 with 95 % confidence interval; Govedič et al. 2020). In Bela krajina the subpopulations are declining. The turtle's most important habitats are old streams, natural fluted valleys and standing water bodies (Vamberger et al. 2013b). Streams and rivers between the water bodies act as important corridors for migration. On the other hand, cold stream sources or fast-flowing streams are less suitable habitats. Even though new random observations of the Pond Turtle in the Drava River basin suggests, that the species is more abundant in the Podravje region than previously known (Govedič et al. 2016), the distribution and population size remain still to be investigated in detail.

In Russia, it inhabits forest, steppe and forest-steppe regions. It lives in swamps, ponds, lakes, floodplains, oxbow lakes, canals, preferring flat water bodies. As a rule, the turtle stays close to water bodies, although it can move away from them for a short distance. The maximum number was noted in the Astrakhan region - 58 individuals on a segment of 150 m, in the Stavropol Territory 75 - 125 ind./ha. In Kalmykia, on the left bank of the Volga, in lakes Turepashye and others, there were 60-75 individuals per 1 km of the coastal strip. In Dagestan, in the delta of the Terek River and in the Agrakhan Bay, there are 20-30 individuals per 100 m of the coastal strip. Active during the day and at dusk. During the day it basks in the sun for many hours, at night it sleeps at the bottom of the reservoir. In case of danger and during wintering, it burrows into the silt. Wintering from late October - early November to April - May. In spring, it emerges from wintering at air temperatures of 6-14^oC and water temperature 5-10^oC. In warm years it can be active in winter. Mating occurs in late April-early May. The female makes 1-3 clutches per season, depending on the area, from 3-13 white eggs with a calcareous shell measuring 28-39 mm x 12-21 mm. The female lays her eggs in a hole 10-17 cm deep. The incubation period lasts 60 - 110 days. Newborns with a carapace length of 20-25 mm hatch from eggs in the Krasnodar Territory from early August to early October. Most of the young do not surface until the next spring (Bannikov et al. 1977, Ananjeva et al. 1998, Bozhansky and Orlova 1998, Mazanaeva Orlova 2002).

Breeding occurs in terrestrial habitats such as in forest edges, grasslands, and Mediterranean shrublands.

The generation length is estimated at about 20 years, but there will be large variation across the N-S range of the species and better data from individual countries are required to confirm this.

Habitat loss and degradation impacts have been considered crucial to the decline of subpopulations of the species. These threats include urbanisation, road construction, and wetland drainage (Atatur 1995, Servan 1995, Ayres 2015). The species is sensitive to water pollution, which has been considered a factor in the localised disappearance of the species (Atatur 1995, Servan 1995; Mascort 1996, 1998). However, the species is known to persist at sites with considerable aquatic pollution.

In Spain the main threats are habitat destruction and fragmentation, water extraction and contamination, illegal captures for pet trade and to a lesser extent for consumption, and effects of the droughts (Ayres et al. 2013, Vilardell et al. 2013). The recent invasive Blue Crab Callinectes sapidus also become a new predator threat, at least for juveniles (Bertolero 2021). In Slovenia, habitat loss and nest destruction by intensified agriculture is a real threat to the species (Vamberger et al. 2017). Consequently, it is of outstanding importance to find egg-laying sites to preserve the species and its habitat. The turtles became rare in some regions due to the intensification of agriculture and urbanisation, which resulted in habitat fragmentation and drainage. In addition, there is an oral report on how several truckloads of living turtles were released in Ljubljana Moor in the 1960s, including European pond turtles from the south of former Yugoslavia. Some surviving turtles spread throughout the area and we assume that the native local turtles mixed with the allochthonous turtles (Vamberger and Kos 2011; M. Vamberger pers. comm. April 2023). In Bela Krajina, the major problem for a decline of pond turtles is the absence of appropriate riparian shallow water, steep slopes, absence of suitable nesting places, in Gornji kal pond interference due to intensive fly-fishing activities and the presence of predator fish species (Vamberger et al. 2013b). In Montenegro, this species is under threat because of habitat loss, urbanization (development of the central part and even more intensively on the coastline), wetland drainage, concreting of channels, unregulated and illegal fishing, including the use of nets and electro-fishing (Vujović et al. in prep., Katnić et al. 2017, Mićanović et al. 2022, Vujović et al. 2016). A serious threat is large-scale fires at wetlands, such as occurred at Lake Skadar 2020 (Pešić et al. 2020) where there are populations of this species (Vujović et al. in prep.). It is under pressure from high levels of pollution of water bodies, mainly in the form of single-use plastic items at tributary rivers, canals and channels (Vujović et al. in prep., Vujović et al. 2016, Katnić et al. 2017, Mićanović et al. 2022). Also, an important local threatening factor could be vegetation burning in the vicinity of their water habitat. In the “Bardača Wetland” Ramsar site (northern Bosnia and Herzegovina) live individuals with burns marks on their bodies have been observed, as well as shells of individuals that died due to burning (G. Šukalo pers. comm.).

Nest predation can be very high, in long-term monitored population in Northern Hungary, on sandbanks of the Ipoly River, Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and Badger (Meles meles) are the most common nest predators, killing 90-95 % of pond turtle nests (B. Halpern pers. comm.). The rise of natural predators can be attributed to climate change and immunization against rabies, while invasive predators such as Raccoons (Procyon lotor) and Raccoon Dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) are also on the rise in some neighbouring countries, including Czechia and Austria, and Romania.

The species has been suspected to be at high risk from interspecific competition for food, basking and nesting sites by the exotic Trachemys scripta (Kramer 1995, Servan 1995). However, there are no sound field data confirming any true interspecific competition between E. orbicularis and T. scripta apart from the use of communal basking sites. In addition, there is no evidence that any population of E. orbicularis has ever been affected from the demographic point of view from sympatric T. scripta, and thus the role of the interspecific competition with the alien species cannot be considered as a confirmed threat for this species. Collection for food and pet trade has been a historical impact and continues in some locations but is not a major threat to the species overall. Overexploitation of water sources is reducing the available habitat of the species, and increasing salination. In artificial lakes in large cities in Romania, the subpopulations have declined due to apparent competition from the introduced Trachemys scripta. Accidental or man-caused fires of reedbeds in the Danube Delta and wetlands can cause high mortality (Cogălniceanu and Venczel 1993).

Introduced disease and parasite transfer (C. Ducotterd pers. comm. January 2023) may be a threat to this species. Ranavirus and Adenovirus viruses and Mycoplasma bacteria have been found in introduced wild and captive Pond Slider (Trachemys scripta), which is widely introduced in Europe. These pathogens can be transmitted to E. orbicularis. More studies are needed about these pathogens.

The species can be a bycatch of fishing operations, especially in the eastern part of its range. L. Luiselli observed tens of individuals killed by fishing gears in the surroundings of Jelilabad, Azerbaijan (April-May 2017). Impacts from this threat in the European region has been confirmed in fishing nets in the Danube drainage in northern Serbia (J. Crnobnja Isailović pers. comm.), and in Romania, along the lower Danube floodplain and especially in the Danube Delta (D. Cogălniceanu pers. comm.), in the island of Pag, Croatia (M. Vamberger pers. comm. April 2023). This threat is probably widespread in its European range. In the Ebro Delta (Catalonia, Spain) bycatch in the lagoons was one of the causes of decline in the past (Bertolero 2000). In the Mediterranean area, the turtle gets trapped in Eel funnel traps and suffocates, and this threat is probably more widespread in its European range.

Threat factors identified in Russia include pollution of water bodies, development of the coastline, capture for captivity, and mortality (bycatch) from suffocation in fishing gears. The most critical situation has developed with the population of the species on the Black Sea coast: at the beginning of the 20^th century, the subpopulations of this area were in fact abundant and easy to observe, especially in the Sochi coast of the Black Sea.

The species is a popular pet animal, and although it is easily bred in captivity, it cannot be excluded that free-ranging individuals are illegally captured for this purpose. One example comes from the border of Serbia and North Macedonia, where in December 2012 officials seized 1,300 live European Pond Turtles (Nikolić and Golubović 2017). One farm that houses European Pond Turtles is functional in North Macedonia – farm-born animals cannot be identified in any way and very little control is imposed, thus farms can very easily be used as platforms for “legal” transport of individuals collected from nature (Arsovski and Sterijovski 2023).

The species was traded and consumed for food during historical times, as consumption was allowed by the Catholic Church institutions during periods in which other types of meat were not allowed.

The species is subject to a variety of European (EC Habitats Directive Annex II and the Bern Convention Annex I and II), national and other protective legislation and occurs in a number of protected areas, including 1,395 Natura 2000 sites that are designated for this species (EEA 2022). In some of these protected areas, for instance, in the Po Plain in northern Italy, it is very abundant. In European Russia, the species is protected in at least 30 reserves, national parks and sanctuaries.

The journal Herpetology Notes published a special issue dedicated to European Pond Turtle conservation in Europe, with various papers summarising conservation actions by country. Instead of reporting precise indications in this assessment, we reference to that published source for the country-by-country fine-scale details.

In Switzerland, the species is Critically Endangered as a result of habitat fragmentation and loss, and reintroduction efforts are in place (C. Ducotterd pers. comm.). The Red Book of Russia includes a subspecies Emys orbicularis colchica (no longer a recognised subspecies, now part of E. o. orbicularis) with the category and status 1 - endangered subspecies (according to the IUCN scale - CR A4abcde, B1ab (i, ii, iii, iv, v) (Tuniyev 2021).

In France, conservation actions are in place (C. Ducotterd unpubl. comm.). In Serbia, the species was assessed as Data Deficient in 2015 (Tomović et al. 2015). Following that assessment, four Rufford Foundation small grants financed studies (in 2015, 2017, 2020, 2023/2024) that aimed to investigate the distribution, population characteristics and threats in Serbia. These studies found the AOO to be just 250 km² (Golubović et al. 2017) with predicted future population declines arising from habitat loss and the impact of introduced species (Golubović et al. 2017), and a reassessment is in progress that places the species as Near Threatened. Based on the experiences of Maria Schindler and colleagues in Austria, wired net, serving as anti-predator nest-guards were successfully used in Hungary at several locations (B. Halpern pers. comm.).

In the Brandenburg area of Germany, successful conservation actions have maintained the species subpopulations (P.P. van Dijk pers. comm. January 2023).

In North Macedonia, it was assessed as Vulnerable due to the continuous degradation of the freshwater habitats it inhabits which will likely bring about reductions to an already low AOO of only 332 km2. National populations were not assessed as Endangered since this estimate is likely an underestimation and the species could benefit from potential rescue effects from neighbouring countries.

In Slovenia, the species is protected under the national legislation. In the Decree on protected animal species (Uredba o zavarovanih prosto živečih živalskih vrstah, Uradni list RS 46/2004, 109/2004, 84/2005, 115/2007), the species is listed in Annex 1A (autochthonous species protected with the conservation regime for specimens and populations) and Annex 2A (autochthonous species for which measures and guidelines for establishing the favourable conservation state of their habitats are declared).

In North Macedonia, it was assessed as Vulnerable due to the continuous degradation of the freshwater habitats it inhabits that will likely bring about reductions to an already low AOO of only 332 km². National populations were not assessed as Endangered since this estimate is likely an underestimation and the species could benefit from potential rescue effects from neighbouring countries.

In Montenegro, The Rufford Foundation financed research and conservation of Emys orbicularis (2014, 2016). This species does not yet have an official status of the national Red List, but it is on the List of protected plants and animals of Montenegro (“Official Gazette of RM”, No. 76/06).

Ten Rufford Foundation small conservation grants have supported work on this species or its habitats in Europe, covering Ukraine, Belarus, and the Balkan countries. The species and its habitats has also benefited from EU LIFE project support, including Recovery of the habitat of amphibians and Emys orbicularis in the Baix Ter (EmysTer LIFE04 NAT/ES/000059), LIFE NELEAP (Protection of Emys orbicularis and amphibians in the north European lowlands; LIFE05 NAT/LT/000094; 2005-2009); Ligurian Invasive Fauna Eradication pro indigenous Emys orbicularis restocking (LIFEEMYS LIFE12 NAT/IT/000395), LIFE FORESTALL (Restoration of Alluvial Forests and Cladium mariscus habitats in Ramsar and Natura 2000 sites, LIFE18 NAT/IT/001020; 2019-2023), URgent Conservation Actions pro Emys orbicularis in Italy and Slovenia (LIFE21-NAT-IT-LIFE URCA PROEMYS/101074714), and there is an EAZA ex situ conservation programme supported by LIFE. 42 LIFE-projects that influenced the conservation management of the species were funded according to LIFE database: https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/life/publicWebsite/index.cfm.

In the Red Book of Spain, the whole of the population was classified in 2002 in the category of Vulnerable, but subspecies E. o. fritzjuergenobsti and undescribed subspecies from northwestern Spain were classified as Endangered and E. o. hispanica as Vulnerable (Pleguezuelos et al. 2002). However, Ayres (2015) proposed that all Spanish populations should be classified as Endangered. Several conservation projects are conducted in Spain (review in Ayres et al. 2013), they include breeding programs and reintroduction projects (e.g. Vilardell et al. 2013, Mignet et al. 2021). Also, the species has been included in several LIFE projects (e.g. LIFE04 NAT/ES/000059 EmysTer (Recovery of the habitat of amphibians and Emys orbicularis in the Baix Ter), LIFE09 NAT/ES/000520 Delta Lagoon, LIFE09 NAT/ES/000529 Trachemys).

Maintenance of suitable wetlands, ensuring that some viable populations of all subspecies are effectively protected, control of competition from exotic turtle species, minimising water pollution and population monitoring all appear desirable conservation measures.