This is a restricted concept of this species following the splits of the broader concept into this and Bufo spinosus (García-Porta et al. 2012, Recuero et al. 2012).

Following genetic analysis, parts of the former range of this species (e.g. Jersey, western and southern France, Andorra, and the Iberian Peninsula) have been assigned to Bufo spinosus which has been elevated from subspecies level (García-Porta et al. 2012, Recuero et al. 2012).

European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU 27 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

The species is assessed as Least Concern for both Europe and for the EU 27 member states in view of its wide distribution, tolerance of a broad range of habitats and presumed large population. However, there have been significant declines in some parts of its range, and population and habitat monitoring is required.

In Europe, this species is present in most areas (including Norway, Sweden and Finland), although absent (as native) from the island of Ireland, western France and the Iberian Peninsula (Gasc et al. 1997, Arnold 2003, Garcia-Porta et al. 2012). It occurs between sea level to 3,000 m asl, however in northern portions of the range the species occurs at much lower elevations. Introduced regions are not mapped for this species.

Out of the European region, the range of this species extends as far east as Xinjiang (China), northern Kazakhstan, eastern Siberia, Iran (Baloutch and Kami 1995) and the Anatolia region of Türkiye (Özeti and Yilmaz 1994, Yilmaz and Kumlutas 1995, Baran et al. 2021).

Although this species is generally common over much of its range, some localised significant declines have been observed. It is suspected to be decreasing in Bulgaria (Y. Kornilev, G. Popgeorgiev and B. Naumov pers. comm. October 2019). In Czechia, this species has declined from thousands of individuals to hundreds in the last 10-20 years (A. Krása pers. comm. September 2019). This may have occurred due to the intensification of fish farming and the increase in predator species (A. Krása pers. comm. September 2019). Major declines have also been observed in Italy in the last 10 years (F. Ficetola and R. Manenti pers. comm. September 2019), the Netherlands (R. Zollinger pers. comm. September 2019), Slovenia (Stanković et al. 2015), and the United Kingdom (J. Wilkinson pers. comm. September 2019). Petrovan and Schmidt (2016) discussed long-term declines observed in Switzerland and UK.

These declines may be due to threats such as habitat loss and road mortalities, but some also appear to be enigmatic and occurring in areas where the habitat is fine (Europe Red List Assessment Workshop 2019).

This is a widespread and adaptable species present in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests, groves, bushlands, meadows, arid areas, parks and gardens. It is usually in damp areas with dense vegetation, and large open areas are generally avoided. The species spawns and larval development takes place in still waters and slow-moving parts of rivers and streams. It is present in many modified habitats. Age at maturity and other life history traits vary enormously across the range of the species (Hemmelaar 1988; B. Schmidt pers. comm. February 2023). Annual survival rather than longevity would be a good descriptor of life history of the species (B. Schmidt per. comm. 2023).

There are generally no significant threats to this widespread and common species. Regional threats on the Balkan Peninsula include an attempt to construct a huge number of run-of-river small hydropower plants on small mountain rivers where this species spawns (Crnobrnja-Isailović et al. 2021). Subpopulations might be locally impacted through deforestation, drainage of wetlands, pollution, agricultural intensification, urbanisation, desertification, mortality on roads (migrating animals), along tram or railway lines (B. Halpern pers. comm. October 2022) and persecution. In parts of the former Soviet Union, it is collected in small numbers for the pet trade.

This species can be affected by the increase of UV-B radiation (Lizana and Pedraza 1998, Lizana and Marco 2001). Chytridiomycosis is a potential threat to the species and has been reported in some UK subpopulations. In the United Kingdom, the species is increasingly suffering from habitat fragmentation and some unexplained declines have occurred. The possible influence of increased random fluctuation of meteorological parameters have been also considered (Jovanović et al. 2020, Jovanović 2021).

Ranavirus (Vörös et al. 2020, Kostanjšek et al. 2021) and Bufonid herpesvirus (Harmos and Magos 2021) have been detected in local subpopulations in Hungary. Saprolegnia were regularly detected to affect spawns negatively in Hungary (Harmos and Magos 2021).

This species is collected for the pet trade.

Conservation Actions In-Place
This species is present in numerous protected areas, is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national and sub-national legislation in many countries. It is recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. It is considered Vulnerable in Italy (Rondinini et al. 2022), Switzerland (Schmidt and Zumbach 2005), Czech Republic (Chobot and Něměc 2017) and Slovenia (Anonymous 2010), NT in Great Britain (Foster et al. 2021), Austria (Gollmann 2007), Albania (Anonymous 2013), Romania (Botnariuc and Tatole 2005). In parts of this species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established (Schmidt et al. 2020). There have been 34 EC-funded LIFE projects targeting the species or its habitats. Successful conservation action is possible for this species (Moor et al. 2022).

Research Needed
Population monitoring is required, as well as research to understand the cause of declines observed in this species across its range. Water management should target the restoration of water bodies, serving as breeding habitats for the species throughout its range, but especially within the EU Natura2000 network (B. Halpern pers. comm. October 2022).

Detected mass mortality locations should be reported and relevant road managers should be requested to find technical solutions to avoid future mortality events (B. Halpern pers. comm. October 2022).